2. Gravity Sucks!

3. If I have seen further it is by standing on ye sholders of Giants.  This is the statement written in a letter to Robert Hooke. It also symbolizes that the discoveries of Newton including gravity.  So we’re going to start with a brief history are in the bronze age.

4. Why is it so difficult to find out about the state of astronomical knowledge of bronze-age civilizations? 1. Written documents from that time are in a language that we don’t understand. 2. There are no written documents documents from that time. 3. Different written documents about their astronomical knowledge often contradict each other. 4. Due to the Earth’s precession, they had a completely different view of the sky than we have today. 5. They didn’t have any astronomical knowledge at all.

5. Ancient Greek Astronomers  Models were based on unproven “first principles”, believed to be “obvious” and were not questioned: 1. Geocentric “Universe”: The Earth is at the Center of the “Universe”. 2. “Perfect Heavens”: The motions of all celestial bodies can be described by motions involving objects of “perfect” shape, i.e., spheres or circles.

6. Ptolemy  He was Greco- Roman writer who lived in Alexandria.  Lived between 90 - 168 AD  One of the few surviving text about ancient astronomy

7. Ptolemy: Geocentric model, including epicycles 1. Imperfect, changeable Earth, 2. Perfect Heavens (described by spheres) Central guiding principles:

8. What were the epicycles in Ptolemy’s model supposed to explain? 1. The fact that planets are moving against the background of the stars. 2. The fact that the sun is moving against the background of the stars. 3. The fact that planets are moving eastward for a short amount of time, while they are usually moving westward. 4. The fact that planets are moving westward for a short amount of time, while they are usually moving eastward. 5. The fact that planets seem to remain stationary for substantial amounts of time.

9. Epicycles The ptolemaic system was considered the “standard model” of the Universe until the Copernican Revolution. Introduced to explain retrograde (westward) motion of planetsretrograde (westward) motion

10. The Copernican Revolution Nicolaus Copernicus (1473 – 1543): Heliocentric Universe (Sun in the Center)

11. Johannes Kepler (1571 – 1630) Used the precise observational tables of Tycho Brahe (1546 – 1601) to study planetary motion mathematically. 1.Circular motion and Planets move around the sun on elliptical paths, with non-uniform velocities. Found a consistent description by abandoning both 2.Uniform motion.

12. New (and correct) explanation for retrograde motion of the planets: This made Ptolemy’s epicycles unnecessary. Retrograde (westward) motion of a planet occurs when the Earth passes the planet. when the Earth passes the planet Described in Copernicus’ famous book “De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium” (“About the revolutions of celestial objects”)

13. Galileo Galilei (1564-1642 A.D.) - Founder of Modern Mechanics and Astronomical use of the Telescope Proved Aristotle Wrong 1. Many more stars too faint to be seen with eye 2. Moon has mountains and craters like Earth…. Earth and Space made of same material 3. Discovered imperfection in Sun (SUNSPOTS)… Sun is not perfect Provided more evidence for a Heliocentric Solar System (Venus exhibits a full cycle of phases which is only possible in a Heliocentric system + Jupiter appears as a mini solar system which means that Kepler’s Laws apply for all planets)

14. Galileo’s Sketch of the Moon Using a Telescope

15. Isaac Newton (1643 - 1727) Major achievements: 1.Invented Calculus as a necessary tool to solve mathematical problems related to motion Adding physics interpretations to the mathematical descriptions of astronomy by Copernicus, Galileo and Kepler 2.Discovered the three laws of motion 3.Discovered the universal law of mutual gravitation

16. The “Discovery” of Gravity  We’ve all heard the story… an apple fell on Newton’s head and he discovered gravity.  Most scholars believe that Newton did see an apple fall and it got him wondering about the rules for falling objects.  He wondered if the force that pulled the apple down also affected the Moon.

17. Remember Newton’s 1 st Law  He had already explained that straight-line motion was perfectly natural and moving in a circle required a force  Johannes Kepler had shown that planets and moons moved in an ellipse.  Newton wanted to understand what made them move that way.  His breakthrough was to explain how the same rules apply to little things like apples and big things like the moon.

18. Making sense of one force and two very different results  We already learned that the apple will accelerate at about 9.8 m/s 2 downward  Newton also knew that the moon accelerates toward the Earth at 0.00272 m/s 2

20. Distance is only part of the story  Distance has a large effect on the force of gravity (we’ll explore this more in a minute)  Remember, though F = m a The force of gravity is also affected by the mass or more correctly, both masses

21. Gravitational Force  Gravitational Force is the mutual force of attraction between particles of matter  This force always exists between two masses, regardless of the medium that separates them  It is not just between large masses, like the sun and the Earth.  The chair you are sitting on is attracted to the person next to you.  However, the force of friction between the chair and the carpet is so great that you don’t move.

22.  Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation is an example of an inverse-square law  This is because the force decreases the further the two objects get from each other.  The distance is measured from the center of each mass.

23.  Remember, the Force of gravity (F grav ) that acts on an object is the same as that object’s weight (in Newtons)

24. Inverse Square Law 4 1/4 9 1/9 16 1/16

25. Inverse Square Law At 2d apple weighs 1/4 N At 3d apple weighs 1/9 N At 4d apple weighs 1/16 N At 5d apple weighs 1/25 N

26. Connecting the two formulas

27. Example #1 Find the force of gravity between a 30 kg girl and her 10 kg cat if they are 2 meters apart. m 1 = 30 kg m 2 = 10 kg G = 6.67 x 10 -11 N·m 2 /kg 2 r = 2m

28. Example #2 Find the distance between a 0.300 kg billiard ball and a 0.400 kg billiard ball if the magnitude of the gravitational force is 8.92 x 10 -11 N. m 1 = 0.3 kg m 2 = 0.4 kg F g = 8.92 x 10 -11 N r = ?

29. Determine the magnitude of the gravitational force between a baseball player with a mass of 100 kg and Earth (5.98 X 10 24 kg), if they are separated by a distance of 5.38 X 10 6 m. A. [Option 1] B. [Option 2] C. [Option 3] D. [Option 4]

30. If a large meteor hits the moon, causing it to get closer to the earth. If the moon’s orbits the earth at half of its original radius, would its force be? A. Double the original force B. Half the original force C. Four times the original force D. One fourth the original force

31. The acceleration due to gravity on the International space station is 8.7 m/s 2. If an 50 kg astronaut stood on a scale what would it read? A. 435 N B. 5.7 N C..17 N D. 0 N

32. Tides  Newton also used the inverse square law to explain the tides.  People had known for centuries that the moon affects the tides.  No one until Newton knew how it did this.

33. d d-R d+R Which of the two forces: moon on left mass (m) or moon on right mass (m) is stronger and why? F d-R

34. Tidal Bulges

35.  Ocean tides are the alternate rising and falling of the surface of the ocean that usually occurs in two intervals everyday, between the hours of 7a.m. to 7p.m.  It is caused by the gravitational attraction of the moon occurring unequally on different parts of the earth.

36. KEPLER: KEPLER: the laws of planetary motion KEPLER’S FIRST LAW KEPLER’S SECOND LAW KEPLER’S THIRD LAW INTERESTING APPLETS

37. Johannes Kepler Born on December 27, 1571 in Germany Studied the planetary motion of Mars  Used observational data of Brahe HOME

38. Instruments Tyco Brahe  only compass and sextant  No telescope – naked eye HOME

39. Kepler’s FIRST Law “The orbit of each planet is an ellipse and the Sun is at one focus” Kepler proved Copernicus wrong – planets didn’t move in circles HOME

40. Focus Focus – one of two special points on the major axis of an ellipse Foci – plural of focus A+B is always the same on any point on the ellipse KEPLER’S FIRST LAW HOME

41. Kepler’s SECOND Law “The line joining the planet to the sun sweeps out equal areas in equal intervals of time” HOME

42. In Another Words… The area from one time to another time is equal to another area with the same time interval All of the areas (in yellow and peach) have equal intervals of time KEPLER’S SECOND LAW HOME

43. Acceleration of Planets Planet moves faster when closer to the sun  Force acting on the planet increases as distance decreases and planet accelerates in its orbit Planet moves slower when farther from the sun HOME KEPLER’S SECOND LAW

44. Kepler’s THIRD Law “The square of the period of any planet is proportional to the cube of the semi-major of its axis” Also referred to as the Harmonic Law HOME

45. T²  a³ T = orbital period in years a = semi-major axis in astronomical unit (AU) Can calculate how long it takes (period) for planets to orbit if semi- major axis is known HOME KEPLER’S THIRD LAW

46. Astronomical Unit Astronomical unit – AU AU is the mean distance between Earth and the Sun 1 AU ≈ 1.5 x 10 8 km ≈ 9.3 x 10 7 miles HOME KEPLER’S THIRD LAW

47. Examples of 3 rd Law Calculating the orbital period of 1AU  T² = a³  T² = (1)³ = 1  T = 1 year Calculating the orbital period of 4AU  T² = a³  T² = (4)³ = 64  T = 8 years HOME KEPLER’S THIRD LAW

48. The planet Saturn is located 9.6 AU from the sun. What is the length of a year on Saturn? A. 885 years B. 4.5 years C. 30 years D. 45 years

49. Comets Although Kepler’s laws were intended to describe the motion of planets around the sun, the laws also apply to comets Comets are good examples because they have very elliptical orbits HOME

50. So what would happen is fell in hole through the center of the earth? Well Lets see!!!

51. So what would happen is fell in hole through the center of the earth? So lets recap The deeper you get into the earth, the weaker the gravity because there is less mass pulling you down because some is pulling you up. The center of the earth has no gravity because the mass is surrounding you on all sides. Once you reach the other side of the earth, you’d stop and be pulled back toward the center.

52. Gravity Recap: Newton’s universal law of gravitation: Acceleration due to gravity: Acceleration that an object experiences when it a distance r from the center F = GMm R 2 g = GM R 2

53. GPE in a uniform field When we do vertical work on a book, lifting it onto a shelf, we increase its gravitational potential energy (Ug). If the field is uniform (e.g. Only for very short distances above the surface of the Earth) we can say... GPE gained (U g ) = Work done = F x d = Weight x Change in height so... ΔU g = mg∆h E.g. In many projectile motion questions we assume the gravitational field strength (g) is constant.

54. GPE in non-uniform fields However, as Newton’s universal theory of gravity says, the force between two masses is not constant if their separation changes significantly. Also, the true zero of GPE is arbitrarily taken not as Earth’s surface but at ‘infinity’. If work must be done to “lift” a small mass from near Earth to zero at infinity then at all points GPE must be negative. (This is not the same as change in GPE which can be + or -) ‘Infinity’E p = 0 Lots of positive work must be done on the small mass! E p = negative

55. The GPE of any mass will always be due to another mass (after all, what is attracting it from infinity?) Strictly speaking, the GPE is thus a property of the two masses. E.g. Calculate the potential energy of a 5kg mass at a point 200km above the surface of Earth. ( G = 6.67  10 -11 N m 2 kg -2, m E = 6.0  10 24 kg, r E = 6.4  10 6 m ) The gravitational potential energy of a mass at any point is defined as the work done in moving the mass from infinity to that point. U g = - GMm r

56. E.g. Calculate the potential energy of a 5kg mass at a point 200km above the surface of Earth. ( G = 6.67  10 -11 N m 2 kg -2, m E = 6.0  10 24 kg, r E = 6.4  10 6 m )

57. Escape speed If a ball is thrown upwards, Earth’s gravitational field does work against it, slowing it down. To fully escape from Earth’s field, the ball must be given enough kinetic energy to enable it to reach infinity. Loss of KE = Gain in GPE ½ mv 2 = GMm (Note this also = Vm) r So... but… so… The escape speed is the minimum launch speed needed for a body to escape from the gravitational field of a larger body (i.e. to move to infinity).