Industrial Revolution

Industrial Revolution
World History Industrial Revolution

Causes: Increasing population Children were a high % of total population. Growth also contributed to migration. In the 18th century more reliable food supplies, earlier marriages, high birthrates, and more widespread resistance to disease contributed to significant population growth in Europe. England and Wales experienced particularly rapid population growth. Rapid population growth meant that children accounted for a relatively high proportion of the total population. Population also contributed to migration of people from the countryside to the cities, from Ireland to England, and from Europe to the Americas.

Agricultural (revolution) #2 New food & forage crops Only the wealthy could afford new crops, new farming methods ---Enclosure Result: Unemployed farmers Agricultural revolution had begun long before the 18th century. New food crops, many of them from the Americas, and new forage crops produced more food per acre and allowed farmers to raise more cattle for meat and milk. Only wealthy landowners could afford to invest in new crops and new farming methods. Rich landowners fenced off (enclosed) their own land and common land to apply new scientific farming methods: as they did so, they forced former tenants to become sharecroppers or landless laborers or to migrate to the cities for work.

Trade/Inventions Increased demand led to increased production Added craftsmen to workshops & used Putting-out system. The third cause of the Industrial Revolution is the increase of trade and the inventiveness used to meet the needs of increased demand. In most of Europe, increasing demands for goods was met with increasing production in the traditional ways, such as adding new craftsmen to existing workshops and the the putting-out system. Population growth and increased agricultural productivity were accompanied by a growth in trade and a fascination with technology and innovation.

Economic & population growth Desire to use new ideas Mining & metal industries Largest merchant marine Fluid social structure A final cause of the Industrial Revolution is the circumstances existing in Britain & Continental Europe at this time.These are the characteristics that help explain Britain’s peculiar role in the Industrial Revolution. They had economic growth, population growth, people who were willing to put new ideas into practice, strong mining and metal industries, the world’s largest merchant marine fleet, and a relatively fluid social structure.

Britain also had: Good water transportation system Unified market Highly developed commercial sector Pluses that Britain had over some of the continental European cities and countries were its good water transportation system, unified market, and their highly developed commercial sector.

Continental Europe experienced similar circumstances but delayed due to war, lack of markets, management skills, & no desire to experiment with new technologies. The economies of continental Europe experienced a similar dynamic expansion in the 18th century, but lack of markets and management skills in addition to the constant warfare from interrupted trade and weakened the incentive to invest in new technologies. Industrialization does come to take hold in Europe but it is delayed until 1815, (after Napoleon and the Congress of Vienna) and then develops first in Belgium & France. European governments step up and play a significant role in fostering industrialization. So these are the main causes of the Industrialization: population growth, economic growth, agricultural progress, increased production to meet increased demand, the desire to test new technologies.

Mass production – pottery Demand created for porcelain. 1759 Josiah Wedgewood used division of labor & molds rather than potters wheel to mass low cost. The Technological Revolution spurs or galvanizes the Industrial Revolution by coming up with so many new ideas and inventions. Mass production was a new idea. Pottery was either imported or handmade for the aristocracy: in either event, ordinary people could not afford it. But the growing taste for tea, cocoa, and coffees created a demand for porcelain that would not spoil the flavor of these beverages. In 1759, Josiah Wedgewood opened a pottery business that used division of labor and molds (rather than the potters wheel) in order to mass-produce high quality porcelain at a low cost that made it affordable for everyday use.

Spinning Jenny – 1764 Water frame – 1769 and invented by Richard Arkwright. Mule – 1785 Samuel Crompton – better, faster. Let’s talk about mechanization. Today we begin with the cotton industry, the largest industry of this period. There was a strong market for cotton cloth, but the cotton plant did not grow in Europe. Restrictions on the import of cotton cloth, (thanks to the wool companies) led inventors and entrepreneurs to devise cheap mechanical methods for spinning cotton thread and weaving cotton cloth in England. (since there weren’t so many restrictions on the cotton plant itself, just on cotton cloth. So beginning in 1760s, a series of inventions revolutionized the spinning of cotton thread. Those inventions included the spinning jenny (1764) The spinning jenny drew out the cotton fibers and twisted them into thread. It was simple, cheap to build and easy for one person to operate. The thread that it made was soft and irregular and could be used only in combination with linen. (made from flax) Another spinning machine, the water frame produced thread strong enough to be used without linen. Invented by Richard Arkwright, the machine was much larger and required some kind of power source such as a water wheel (hence the name water frame) To obtain the necessary energy, he installed many machines in one building next to a fast flowing river. The resemblance to a flour mill gave such enterprises the name cotton mill. Then in 1785 Samuel Crompton patented a machine that combined the best of the jenny and the water frame. The device called a mule produced a thread that was both strong and refined enough to be used in the finer qualities of cotton called muslin. The mule could make a finer, more even thread than any human and at a lower cost. As result, England was soon able to undersell high quality handmade cotton from India

Mechanization led to efficiency and lower prices. Cotton became America’s most valuable crop developed for export to England. Mechanization of cotton textile production led to greater efficiency and lower prices. Cotton soon became America’s most valuable crop, produced for export to England and, from the 1820s, for America’s own cotton textile industry.

In the 18th century a series of inventions including coke and puddling made it possible for the British to produce large amounts of cheap iron. The iron industry. Iron had been in use in Eurasia and Africa for thousands of years, but iron production was associated with deforestation that increased the price of charcoal and thus reduced the output of iron. Limited wood supplies and the high cost of skilled labor made iron a rare and valuable metal outside of China before the 18th century. (Read the slide) Abraham Darby, 1709 discovered that coke (coal from which the impurities have been cooked out) could be used in place of charcoal.. The resulting metal was of lower quality than charcoal iron, but much cheaper to produce because coal is plentiful. Then in 1784, Henry Cort found a way to remove some of the impurities in coke-iron by puddling, which is stirring the molten iron with long rods. By 1790, 4/5’s of Britain’s iron was made with coke while other countries still used coal.

Increased production & lower cost led people to use iron for many things including bridge building and construction of the Crystal Palace. In 1799 the iron manufacturer Abraham Darby III (grandson of the first Abraham Darby, build a bridge of iron across the Severn River. In 1851 Londoners marveled at the Crystal Palace. (A huge greenhouse made entirely of iron and glass and tall enough to enclose the tallest of trees.)

Interchangeable parts – adopted in firearms, farm equipment & sewing machine industries in the 19th century. American system of manufactures. The idea of interchangeable parts originated in the 18th century, but wasn’t widely adopted until the 19th century and then in the firearms, farm equipment, and sewing machine industries. The use of machinery to mass-produce consumer goods with identical parts was known as the “American system of manufactures.” In the next hundred years, the use of machinery to mass-produce consumer items was to become the hallmark of American industry.

Between Thomas Newcomen developed a crude steam engine used to pump water out of coal mines. ******************* The steam engine: The steam engine was THE most revolutionary invention of the Industrial Revolution. Between 1702 and 1712, Thomas Newcomen developed a crude, inefficient steam engine that was used to pump water out of coal mines.

1769 – James Watt improved Newcomen’s engine. Provided power allowing factories to be built where no other sources of power were located. In 1769, James Watt improved the Newcomen engine and began to manufacture engines for sale to manufacturers. Watt’s engine provided a source of power that allowed factories to be located where animal, wind, and water power were lacking.

1780s – steam engine used to power riverboats in France & America. 1830s – more efficient engines used for oceangoing vessels In the 1780s, the steam engine was used to power riverboats in France and America. In the 1830s, the development of more efficient engines made it possible to build ocean going steamships.

Trevithick/Stephenson build lighter, more powerful steam engines to power locomotives & replaced horses. After 1800, inventors including Richard Trevithick and George Stephenson built lighter, more powerful high pressure steam engines and used them to power steam locomotives that soon replaced the horse on horse power railways.

Britain & railway mania. 1840s & 1850s in the U.S. Railways connect country & mid-west to agricultural development & in Europe trigger industrialization. Railway mania swept Britain from as the major cities, and then small towns were linked by a network of railroads. ( thanks to the ROCKET, which pulled a 20 ton train up to 30 miles an hour.) In the United States, railway booms in the 1840s and 1850s linked the country together and opened the mid-west to agricultural development. Railroads were far cheaper, faster, and more comfortable than stage coaches and millions of people got into the habit of traveling. The United States was probably most enthusiastic about using railroads due in part to their philosophy of manifest destiny. (Also enabled farmers from a long distance, transportation of goods to market.) In Europe, railways trigger industrialization. Europe’s industrial areas were concentrated in the iron and coal rich areas of northern France, Belgium, the Ruhr, and Silesia. Those closest to England take off first and the rest followed suite later.

1837 – Wheatstone & Cook’s five needle telegraph in England. Also in 1837 – Morse Code; system of dashes and dots in the United States. Communication over wires: The construction of railroads was accompanied by the development of the electric telegraph. Two systems of telepathy were invented in 1837: Wheatstone and Cook’s 5 needle telegraph in England (which remained in use until the 20th century) and Morse’s dots and dashes system in the United States. In the 1840s and 1850s Americans and Europeans had built the beginnings of what would become a global communications network. Europeans and Americans regarded this rapid communications systems as a clear measure of progress.

Rapid growth in cities & urban areas resulted in overcrowding, pollution, and disease for the poor. Reforms did not occur until the mid-19th century. Impact of the Industrial Revolution The new Industrial cities: Industrialization brought about the rapid growth of towns and the development of megalopolises such as Greater London.. The wealthy built fine homes, churches and public buildings and the poor crowded into cheap shoddy row houses. Country people moving into the city brought a little bit of the country with them such as livestock that lived with them! Factories and worker’s housing were mixed thus exposing more people to unhealthy air. Diseases such as dysentery, tuberculosis, and small pox proliferated. A new disease called rickets (bone disease) emerged due to lack of sunshine, obscured by smoke. Pollution existed in other forms. People drank from streams that were polluted from factory run-offs and sewage. Sudden population growth, crowding, and lack of municipal services made urban problems more serious than they had been in the past. Inadequate facilities for sewage disposal, air and water pollution, and diseases made urban life unhealthy and contributed to high infant mortality and shorter life expectancy. Report of the horrors of slum life led to municipal reforms that began to alleviate the ills of urban life after the mid-19th century.

Deforestation con’t. Industrialization provided substitutes for wood. New transportation systems changed rural life. Rural environments: Almost all land in Europe had been transformed by human activity in one way or another before the Industrial Revolution, but deforestation was an ongoing problem. Americans transformed their environment even faster than Europe, clearing land, using it until the soil was depleted and then moving on. Industrialization relieved pressure on the English environment in some ways: agricultural raw materials were replaced by industrial materials or by imports, while the use of coke (made from coal) and the availability of cheap iron reduced the demand for expensive wood. New transportation systems greatly changed rural life. Toll roads, canals, and then railroads, linked isolated districts to the great centers of commerce, industry, and population.

Most jobs offered were for unskilled labor. Increased rate of child labor; restricted by the British in mid-19th century. New labor source: the Irish Working conditions: Industrialization offered new, highly-paid opportunities for a small number of skilled, carpenters, metalworkers, and machinists. But most industrial jobs were unskilled, repetitive, boring, badly paid, and came with poor working conditions. The separation of work from home had a major impact on women and family life. Women workers were concentrated in the textile mills and earned much less than men. Husbands and wives worked in separate places. Most of the female work force consisted of young women who took low-paid jobs as domestic servants. In the mid 19th century the British gov’t. restricted child labor, so mill owners recruited Irish immigrants instead. In America, the first industrialists offered good wages and decent working conditions to their women workers, but harsh working conditions, long hours and low pay soon became standard. Protest by American women workers led factory owners to replace them with Irish women, who were willing to accept lower pay and worse conditions.

Industrial Revolution increased demand for cotton, sugar & coffee, and prolonged slavery in the U.S. & Caribbean and extended slavery to Brazil. The Industrial Revolution increased the demand for cotton, sugar, and coffee. In doing so, industrialization helped to prolong slavery in the United States and the Caribbean and to extend slavery to the coffee-growing regions of Brazil.

Disparities in income . Worker’s standards of living did not improve until 1850s. Beneficiaries: middle class Changes in society: Industrialization increased disparities in income. The wages and standards of living of the workers varied with the fluctuations of the business cycle, but overall, workers’ standards of living did not improve until the 1850’s. The real beneficiary of the Industrial Revolution was the middle class. Rising incomes allowed the middle class to build their own businesses, to keep their women at home, and to develop a moral code that stood in contrast to the squalor and drunkenness of the working class. It came to be called a “cult of domesticity” where women remained at home to run the home, raise and educate the children and the family’s social life.

Adam Smith – laissez faire The Wealth of Nations 1776 Gov’t. shouldn’t interfere in the business realm. Bentham/List: gov’t needs to manage economy & social problems. Ideological and Political Responses to Industrialization Laissez faire & its critics: Keep in mind that the Industrial Revolution is occurring during and after major revolutions, governments toppling, etc. Lots of new ideas in government and in the economy were spreading and being alternately tried and sometimes discarded. The Industrial Revolution helped to strengthen ideas of laissez faire and socialism and sparked workers protests. Adam Smith was the most famous proponent of the laissez faire doctrine that government should refrain from interfering in business,. Needless to say, business people liked this, but there were many critics such as Jeremy Bentham in England and Freidrich List in Germany who argued that the state should take action to manage the economy and to address social problems.

Malthus/Ricardo: poverty of working class was due to over-population & should be addressed through restraint, not the government. Thomas Malthus and David Ricardo argued that the poverty of the working class was the result of over-population and that it could best be addressed, not by government action but by delayed marriage and sexual restraint.

Positivism: scientific method solves social problems. Fourier – ideal society has no capitalists. Robert Owen - prosperity for all. Served as an example for reforms. Positivists and utopian socialists: In France, the count of Saint Simon developed a philosophy called positivism which argued that the scientific method could solve social as well as technical problems. The utopian socialists include Charles Fourier, who imagined an ideal society without capitalists. He imagined an ideal society where groups of workers (about 1600 or so) would live in dormitories and work together on the land on in workshops where music, wine and pastries would soften the hardships of labor. For this his critics called him a utopian, a dreamer, after the Greek word utopia meaning “nowhere”. Robert Owen believed that industry could provide prosperity for all. His conscience was bothered by the appalling sights he saw and as a result, Owen put his ideas into practice by carrying out reforms in his own textile mill . He built churches, schools and improved the housing for his workers. He also testified and encouraged Parliament to pass child labor laws and establish government inspection of working conditions. This caused him to fall in popularity with his fellow industrialists.

Protests and reforms move from individual resistance to collective action, including unions. British legislation included Factory Act, Mines Act, & repeal of Corn Laws. Protests and reforms: Workers initially responded to the harsh working conditions by changing jobs frequently, not reporting for work, doing poor quality work when not closely observed, and by engaging in riots or strikes. Workers gradually moved beyond the stage of individual, unorganized resistance to create organizations for collective action: benevolent societies and trade unions. Mass movements persuaded the British government to investigate the abuse of industrial life and to offer legislation designed to improve conditions. Such acts include the Factory Act of 1833, which prohibited the employment of children under age 9 in textile mills. And limited the hours worked by children ages 9-13 to 8 hours a day and children to 12 hours a day) The mines act of 1842 prohibited the employment of women and of boys under age 10 underground. Actually, several decades passed before there were enough inspectors to enforce this law. Most important was the repeal of the corn laws, tariffs on imported corn. The repeal which occurred in 1846, was designed to lower the cost of food for workers and thereby allow employers to pay lower wages. This was also a victory of sorts for the rising class of manufacturers, merchants and investors over the conservative landowners that had dominated British politics for so long.

Russia: no middle class. They were afraid of using Western ideas. Imported industrial goods & exported grain & timber. Fell behind Europe. Industrialization and the Non-industrial world: Russia first: Russia’s industrialization was carried out by the Russian state with the assistance of foreign engineers because there was almost no middle class in Russia. Until the late 19th century, a limited interest in industry and fear of Western liberal ideas and of the working and middle classes led the Russian government to import most industrial goods and pay for them by exporting grain and timber. As a result, Russia fell further behind Europe both technologically and economically.

Egypt undertook industrialization program funded by wheat & cotton exports & protected by high tariffs on imports. Became dependent on the British instead of the Ottomans. Egypt: In the early 19th century, Egypt’s ruler Muhammad Ali wanted to build up the Egyptian economy and military in order to become less dependent on the Ottoman sultanate, his nominal overlord. So he undertook a program of industrialization that was funded by the export of wheat and cotton (purchased by the government at a low cost and then sold at a profit) and protected by high tariffs on imported goods. The prospect of a powerful modern Egypt posed a threat to the British, so in 1839 Britain forced Mohammed Ali to eliminate all import duties after intervening in his struggle with the Ottomans. Without tariff protection, Egypt’s industries could not compete with cheap British products; Egypt became an economic dependency on Britain.

Machines forced Indian spinners out of business India became an importer of British goods & exporter of raw materials. Britain did nothing to encourage Indian industry. India: Cheap machine-made British textiles forced Indian spinners and hand weavers out of work. Most became landless peasants, and India became an exporter of raw materials and an importer of British industrial goods. Railroads, coal mining and telegraph lines were introduced to India in the mid 19th century, in effect to hasten productivity for the British and not to stimulate Indian industry. Some Indian entrepreneurs were able to establish their own textile mills, but overall, India’s industrialization proceeded at a very slow pace because British administration did nothing to encourage Indian industry.

CONCLUSION Between 1760 & 1851 new technologies greatly increased humans’ control over nature & transformed the environment.

CONCLUSION Increased disparities between individuals & societies, brought changes in work & family life. Society was slow to address abuses. This newfound power over nature increased the disparities between individuals and between societies and brought changes in work and family life. The social results of the Industrial Revolution sparked intense debates among intellectuals, but society was sow ot bring the abuses under control.

CONCLUSION By the 1850s the Industrial Revolution had spread to Western Europe & the U.S. & was contributing to a shift in the historic balance of power between Europe & China.

Industrial Revolution

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