1. Multilingual contexts in the Tarai: Issues in Nepalese perspective Yogendra P. Yadava Tribhuvan University ypyadava@gmail.comypyadava@gmail.com / info@yogendrayadava.com.np The Role of NGOs/INGOs in Developing Tarai Kathmandu, Nepal 14-15 November,2011.

2.  Nepal is characterized by rich linguistic diversity.  The Tarai, inhabited by half of Nepal's total population (viz. 50.15%, CBS 2011), is more or less not immune from this characteristics.  Goal: an attempt to analyze the overall state-of the-art situation of the languages spoken in the Terai. Specific objectives: i.sociolinguistic aspects (identification, genetic affiliation, distribution, literate traditions, language use in various domains such as administration, education and media, and language endangerment) ii. issues related to the Tarai languages mainly from the perspectives of their linguistic inclusion. Outline 21

3.  Languages, being living and dynamic, naturally have to undergo constant change. Consequently, it is difficult to enumerate the precise number of the world's living languages. However, Ethnologue (2009) has made an approximation of 6,909 languages spoken all over the globe. With the growing awareness of knowledge of these languages, the number of languages in use has been increasing on the one hand while, on the other, a considerable number of languages are going out of use (Krauss 1992). 1. Background 31

4.  South Asia, like the world's several countries, is 'a rich and fascinating linguistic area' with several hundred languages from four major language families, viz. the Indo-European (ca. 74%), the Dravidian (ca. 24%), the Austroasiatic (ca. 1.2%), or the Sino-Tibetan (ca. 0.6%) families, with some unclassified language isolates (such as Kusunda) in the Himalayan region (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages_of_Sout h_Asia). 41

5.  Nepal comprises a relatively small area of 147,181 square kilometres with a length of 885 kilometres from east to west and a mean breadth of 193 kilometres from north to south. However, its topography is rich and varied. Inhabiting the different climatic and ecological zones with a high level of biodiversity per unit area, it is matched by a similar rate of linguistic and cultural variation. Nepal is populated by 103 officially recognized caste and ethnic groups who are largely Hindus, Buddhists, Animists, Muslims, and in some cases a combination of two or more of these (Pradhan and Shreshtha 2005) and speak around 92 languages officially-recognized by the state (Yadava 2003; Yadava and Turin 2007). 51

6. 61

7. 2. The Tarai languages tease out the major aspects of the language situation in the Tarai. These aspects include: identification, genetic affiliation, distribution, nomenclature, written traditions, multilingualism, language resources, domains of language use, and so on. 71

8. 2.1Identification S.No.LanguagesNo of speakers % 1Maithili 2797582 12.30 2.Bhojpuri 1712536 7.53 3.Tharu 13315465.86 4.Avadhi 5607442.47 5.Bajjika 237947 1.05 6.Urdu 174840 0.77 7.Rajbanshi 129829 0.57 8. Hindi 105765 0.47 9. Santhali 402600.18 10Uranw 286150.13 11.Bangla 236020.10 12. Marwari 22637 0.10 13.Dhimal 173080.08 14. Angika 158920.07 15.Meche 3301 0.01 16. Khariya 3301 0.01 17.Kisan 4890.00 18. Koche 54 0.00 19.Magahi 300.00 81

9. Of these Tarai languages, Maithili, Bhojpuri, Tharu, Avadhi, Bangla, Dhimal, Hindi, Uranw/Jhangar/Dhangar, Marwari, Rajbanshi, Santhali, and Urdu have been consistently reported in the various censuses since 1952/54. Some of the languages such as Meche have been reported irregularly. Five of the Tarai languages (viz. Angika, Bajjika, Khariya, Shadri (Kisan), and Koche) have been reported only in the census 2001 for the first time. 91

10. Angika and Bajjika, which were earlier considered the dialects of Maithili and Bhojpuri, respectively, have been returned as distinct languages in the 2001 census. The enumeration of the Tarai languages shows variation in different censuses. Similarly, Tharu has been enumerated in various censuses but it also needs to be analyzed to ascertain whether it is a single language with several regional dialects or comprises more than one language. While the Census 2001 and other estimates have established fairly credible numbers of the Tarai languages, more precise and accurate figures still need to be ascertained through further careful investigation. 101

11. Similarly, Census 2001 does not distinguish Dagaura Tharu from Rana Tharu, a distinct language. In addition, with growing democratic awareness people have been asserting for recognizing a few minority languages such as Tajpuriya, Kushwadiya, etc. We can obtain a precise identification of the Tarai languages only through their scientific survey (See Yadava and Turin (2007) for a similar observation on the languages spoken in Nepal as a whole). With the growing democratization and awareness among Nepalese people in recent times several communities have been asserting for their ethnic and linguistic identity. In Tarai, for example, minority communities such as Tajpuriya, Pattharkatta, and Sonama have come up with their demand for recognizing their ethnic and linguistic identity. Similarly, some community zealots have wrongly claimed to speak languages like Musasa and the like. 111

12. Language families: 1. Indo-European -15 2. Sino-Tibetan -2 3.Austro-Asiatic -1 4.Dravidian- 1 1.2Genetic affiliation2.2Genetic affiliation 121

13. Most of the Tarai languages are cross-border and trans-regional languages as they are spoken in Nepal and India and also in the Tarai and the Hills. 2.3Distribution 131

14. The Tarai languages are found to be named in various ways. The names for several languages have been derived from the country or place names and bestowed by the-then ruling classes as their official names. Such regional designations have gradually gained currency among their users and others. One of such languages is, like Nepali, Maithili, which had been established as the state language of the Kingdom of Mithila. Its main alternative names include Tirhutiyaa, Dehaati, etc. Other languages of Nepal whose nomenclature is based on place names are Bhojpuri (< Bhojpur), Awadhi (<Awadh), Hindi (<Hindustaan), Santhali (<Santhal), Bangala (<Bangaal), Marwadi (Mawaad), Angika (<Ang), Meche (<Mechi), Punjabi (Punjab), Oriya (<Orissa), Sindhi (<Sindh), Marwari (< Marwar), Hariyanvi (<Hariyana,), Magahi (<Magadh), Assamese (<Assam), etc. 1.2Genetic affiliation 2.4Nomenclature 141

15. Secondly, there are a few examples in Nepal of a language name derived from a community or tribe name. Such languages include Tharu, Rajbanshi, Dhimal, Khariya, Shadri, Dhangar/Jhangar/Uranw, Munda, etc. Thirdly, Urdu and Sanskrit are the two languages which are very much restricted to religions. Urdu, originated as Dakshni (the ‘southern’ language) used by the Muslim conquerors in northern Deccan and later called Urdu, the language of the court, called the Horde, in the main stronghold of Northern Hindustan, was finally adopted as the language of the Muslim community in India as well as Nepal ( Cf. Breton, 1997:74). 151

16. Sanskrit, enumerated only with 823 native speakers, is hardly used as a medium of mass communication but it has been actively used by Hindus in performing their religious rituals and also by scholars in scholastic studies and deliberations. Finally, Nepali Sign Language, which has been reported in the 2001 census for the first time, has been named after the medium or ‘signs’ used by the deaf in their communication. 161

17. It may, however, be noted that this sign language is obviously different from the one spoken in the Tarai which, therefore, needs to be identified separately. There are quite a few languages with more than one name, e.g. Tirhutiya and Dehati for Maithili 6. Etymologically, the derivation of an Indo-Aryan language name may involve a productive adjectival Nepali suffix –i attached to a nominal stem (indicating place), e.g. Mithila + -i = Maithili, Bhojpur + -i + = Bhojpuri, Awadh + -i = Awadhi, etc. The Tibeto-Burman languages, however, do not involve such suffixation, e.g. Dhimal (but not Dhimali). 6 See Grimes (2000) for the various names used for a language. 6 171

18. 4.4 Literacy in languages Most of the languages spoken in Nepal are still confined to their Some existing scripts: i.Devanagari:Maithili, Bhojpuri, Avadhi, Rajbanshi ii.Mithilakshar/Tirhuta: Maithili iii.Gurumukhi:Punjabi iv.Perso-Arabic:Urdu v.Ol Ciki /Ol: Santhali vi.Bengali:Bengali 2.5Literacy in the Tarai languages 181

19. Most of the Tarai languages, which are cross- border languages spoken in both Nepal and India, have well-developed literate traditions. They include Maithili, Bhojpuri, Avadhi, Hindi, Assamese, Bangla, Urdu, Punjabi, Santhali, and Marwadi in particular. All of them have long tradition of written literature. These languages have employed various writing systems or scripts. Most of the Indo-Aryan languages such as Maithili (originally written in Mithilakshar or Kaithi script), Bhojpuri, Awadhi, Hindi and Rajbanshi are written in the modern Devanagari script with small adjustments and additional letters. 191

20. The modern Devanagari script has evolved from an ancient writing system, called Brahmi dating back to about 500 BC. Though Bangala is written in a modern Bengali script, which developed from the Kutila variety of the northern type of the Brahmi script. The proto- Bengali script degenerated into Maithili Tirhuta script or Mithilakshar and Kaithi with small adjustments and additional characters. Another script Perso-Arabic is used in writing Urdu language while Punjabi language is written in Gurumukhi. 201

21. As in India, Santhali in Nepal is written in the Santali alphabet, which is also known as Ol Cemet', Ol Ciki or simply Ol, which was created in the 1920s by Pandit Raghunath Murmu as part of his efforts to promote Santali culture. Until the invention of this alphabet, Santali was either not written at all, or was written with the Bengali or Oriya alphabets. Christian missionaries prefer to write Santali with the Latin alphabet. In Nepal some people also write Santhali in Devanagari. BengaliOriyaLatin 211

22. The linguistic diversity existing in the country has given rise to the three situations in the country, viz. monolingualism, bilingualism, and multilingualism. Of these language situations, only monolingualism or the use of just mother tongues has been regularly reported since the first modern census in 1952/54. 2.6Multilingualism 221

23. Most speakers of Nepal’s languages have been found to be in close contact. As a result, these languages tend to converge through mutual borrowing and influences and gradually share a number of lexical and grammatical features. For example, we find Tibeto-Burman languages “Indo- Aryanized” and Indo-Aryan languages “Tibeto-Burmanized”. There is a need for an intensive study of convergence as well as divergence to ascertain the precise nature of Nepal as a linguistic area. 231

24. The Indo-Aryan languages spoken in the Tarai (e.g. Rajbanshi, Maithili, Bhojpuri, Avadhi, and Tharu) constitute a curious case, in that they are linked uninterruptedly from the viewpoint of intelligibility. That is to say, it is rather difficult to say where one language ends and another begins. However, the degree of intelligibility goes on decreasing with the increase in distance between the adjacent languages. In such a case, people adopt Hindi as a link language. Thus, these languages form a continuum. 241

25. 2.7 Language resources 251

26. 1.4 Language attitudes2.8 Language attitudes 261

27. 1 International Instruments Many international and regional human rights documents (instruments) regulate the right to education in relation to language. Most demand “only” that nobody should be discriminated against on the basis of language. All these and many more can be found on the website of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner of Human Rights (http://www.ohchr.org/EN/Pages/WelcomePage.aspx). http://www.ohchr.org/EN/Pages/WelcomePage.aspx 2.9Domains of language use 2.9.1 Administration 271

28. 2National language-related legal framework The Interim Constitution of Nepal 2007 incorporates the following provisions regarding language and language rights: Article 5. Language of the Nation: Sub-Article (1). All the languages spoken as the mother tongue in Nepal are the national languages of Nepal. Sub-Article (2). The Nepali Language in Devnagari script shall be the official language. Sub-Article (3). Notwithstanding anything contained in clause (2), it shall not be deemed to have hindered the use of the mother tongue in local bodies and offices. State shall get the languages so used translated into an officialworking language and maintain record thereof. 281

29. Article 13. Right to Equality: Sub-Article (2). No discrimination shall be made against any citizen in the application of general laws on grounds of religion, race, sex, caste, tribe, origin, language or ideological conviction or any of these. Sub-Article (3).The State shall not discriminate among citizens on grounds of religion, race, caste, tribe, sex, origin, language or ideological conviction or any of these. Provided that nothing shall be deemed to prevent the making of special provisions by law for the protection, empowerment or advancement of the interests of women, Dalit, indigenous ethnic tribes, Madeshi, or peasants, labourers or those who belong to a class which is economically, socially or culturally backward and children, the aged, disabled and those who are physically or mentally incapacitated. 291

30. Quite recently, The Interim Constitution of Nepal (2007), an outcome of the Andolan II, makes the following provisions for languages: Regarding the education and cultural right, the constitution enshrines the following provisions: (1)Each community shall have the right to get basic education in their mother tongue as provided for in the law. (3)Each community residing in Nepal shall have the right to preserve and promote its language, script, culture, cultural civility and heritage. ( The Interim Constitution of Nepal (2007), Part 3, Article 17) 2.9Domains of language use 2.9.2 Education and media 301

31. Awadhi, Bhojpuri, Maithili, Tharu, and Rajbanshi languages were reported to be used as medium of study and/or as a subject of study in elementary education whereas Hindi and Maithili were reported to be used in higher education. Of all the Tarai languages, Avadhi, Bhojpuri, Dhimal, Hindi, Maithili, Rajbanshi, Tharu, and Urdu have access to publication of newspapers and/or magazines related to news, literature, culture and language activities. 311

32. 4.3 Languages are not ‘isolated units’  Misconception: Each language, culture and religion is like an isolated unit.  Illustrated in Figure 1 (Watters 2008) 2.10Language not as ‘isolated units’ 321

33.  However, languages are not isolated units. In fact, they can be inter-related to one another in a number of different ways, including through a common linguistic history, or culture, or perhaps through economic ties or social ties such as inter-marriage (Watters 2008).  Illustrated in Figure 2. (Watters 2008) 331

34.  The Indo-Aryan languages spoken in the Tarai (e.g. Rajbanshi, Maithili, Bhojpuri, Avadhi, and Tharu) constitute a curious case of language continuum, in that they are linked uninterruptedly from the viewpoint of intelligibility (Yadava et al. 1995). That is to say, it is rather difficult to say where one language ends and another begins.  However, the degree of intelligibility goes on decreasing with the increasing distance between the adjacent languages. Thus, these languages form a continuum.  In such a case, people employ a language of wider communication or contact language, e.g. Hindi in the Tarai, Sherpa (or Tibetan?) in the mountains, Bantawa in the Rai- Kirat region, Nepali in the hills, and so forth.  Thus, languages constitute various clusters which may be considered for state restructuring on linguistic basis. 341

35. 35 2.10Unknown diversity Nepal is impressively diverse in its linguistic makeup. The diversity is known – known to exist – but the way in which it is diverse, the extent to which it is diverse, is not fully known. Language relationships in the Himalayan region are exceedingly complex, and there is little agreement about what the higher-order taxonomic relationships really are. Is Newar Bodish or is it Himalayish? Where does Chepang fall? Is Ghale part of the Tamangic complex or not? People have come and gone, kingdoms have risen and fallen, and influences have ebbed and flowed. Tibeto-Burman, Indo- Aryan, and Munda languages (among others) have been spoken within close proximity to one another for many hundreds, if not thousands, of years, and each has exerted lexical and grammatical influence on their neighbors. In some cases, what may have originally been genetically distinct languages have, over time, come to be typologically similar because of linguistic convergence.(LinSuN 2008) Language/dialect controversy 1

36. 3.Major Linguistic issues This paper has presented the current profile of the languages spoken in the Tarai. The following are its major issues which need to taken into consideration in the contexts of formulating an inclusive language policy for state restrucuring, choice of official language(s), medium/subject of instruction in school education, and language use in media and legal transactions to be enshrined in the forthcoming constitution : 1. In the lack of adequate studies about several Tarai languages it is difficult to understand precise genetic relationships among them. 2.All the Tarai language names do not represent their speakers' attitude. 361

37. 3.There exists no satisfactory account of information about regional, social and stylistic varieties of the Tarai languages in Nepal. It is, therefore, difficult to determine their dialectal variations. 4.In most of the language there are no writing systems and they are confined to their oral traditions. It is necessary to develop appropriate writing systems for the unwritten Tarai languages. 5.There has been no standardization of the Tarai languages except Hindi. 371

38. 6.As for the domains of languageuse, the following observations have been made in this study: a.Nepali alone has been used in administration and other language communities have remained excluded. b.There are 19 mother tongues used in primary education as a subject. It is necessary to introduce other languages both as subject and medium. c.There has been recent thrust on introducing quite a few languages in media. 381

39. d.Nepali has been mostly used a language of wider communication in the hills and the mountains but it is Hindi in the Terai. e.Most of the language communities have expressed interest in preserving and promoting their mother tongues. f.Most speakers have positive attitude towards their mother tongues. g.Most of these languages are more or less threatened with extinction and need to be revitalized and promoted. 391

40. 7.Languages are not isolated units. In fact, they can be inter-related to one another in a number of different ways, including through a common linguistic history, or culture, or perhaps through economic ties or social ties such as inter-marriage. 8.An intensive study of the Tarai languages needs to be undertaken for obtaining a clear linguistic scenario in the Tarai as it is inevitable for demarcating provinces on linguistic basis and language use in domains such as administration and education. 401

41. Thank you ! 411