1. Module 2
Psychology & Science

2. INTRODUCTION Blake’s problem
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
Not diagnosed by any medical tests
Diagnosed on the basis of the occurrence of certain behavioral problems
Symptoms should have been present from an early age, persisted for at least six months, and contributed to maladaptive development

3. INTRODUCTION (CONT’D)
ADHD
Child must have six or more symptoms of inattention and hyperactivity, such as
making careless mistakes in schoolwork
not following instructions
being easily distracted
fidgeting
leaving classroom seat
talking excessively

4. ANSWERING QUESTIONS Researchers tend to use three methods
Each one provides different kinds of information
Survey
Case study
Experiment

5. SURVEY Survey Way to obtain information by asking many individuals
Person to person, telephone or mail
Answer a fixed set of questions about particular subjects

6. SURVEY (CONT’D) Disadvantages Information can contain errors
Results can be biased
How questions are worded and who asks them
Advantages
Quick and efficient way to collect information on behaviors, beliefs, experiences, and attitudes from a large sample of people
Can compare answers from various ethnic, age, socioeconomic, and cultural groups

7. CASE STUDY
Case study
In-depth analysis of the thoughts, feelings, beliefs, experiences, behaviors, or problems of a single individual
Personal case study: testimonial
statement in support of a particular viewpoint based on detailed observation of a person’s own personal experience
Error and bias: self-fulfilling prophecy
having a strong belief or making a statement about a future behavior and then acting, usually unknowingly, to fulfill or carry out that behavior

8. CASE STUDY (CONT’D) Disadvantage
Detailed information about a particular person may not apply to others
Advantage
Detailed information allows greater understanding of a particular person’s life

9. EXPERIMENT: USE OF PLACEBOS
Intervention, such as taking a pill, receiving an injection, or undergoing an operation, that resembles medical therapy but, in fact, has no medical effects
Placebo effect
Change in a patient’s illness that’s attributable to an imagined treatment rather than to a medical treatment

10. EXPERIMENT: USE OF PLACEBOS10

11. EXPERIMENT: USE OF PLACEBOS (CONT’D)
Researchers believe that placebos work by reducing tension and distress and by creating powerful self-fulfilling prophecies
Individuals think and behave as if the drug, actually a placebo, is effective

12. EXPERIMENT: USE OF PLACEBOS (CONT’D)
Placebo examples
Rhino horn
Centipedes
Tiger bones
Cough medication

13. CORRELATION Correlation
An association or relationship between the occurrence of two or more events
Correlation coefficient
A number that indicates the strength of a relationship between two or more events: the closer the number is to –1.00 or +1.00, the greater is the strength of the relationship

14. CORRELATION (CONT’D)

15. CORRELATION (CONT’D) Perfect positive correlation coefficient
+1.00 means that an increase in one event is always matched by an equal increase in a second event
Positive correlation coefficient
Indicates that as one event tends to increase, the second event tends to, but does not always, increase
Increases from to indicate a strengthening of the relationship between the occurrence of two events

16. CORRELATION (CONT’D) Zero correlation
Indicates that there is no relationship between the occurrence of one event and the occurrence of a second event
Negative correlation coefficient
Indicates that as one event tends to increase, the second event tends to, but does not always, decrease
-0.01 to indicates a strengthening in the relationship of one event increasing and the other decreasing

17. CORRELATION (CONT’D) Perfect negative correlation coefficient
-1.00 means that an increase in one event is always matched by an equal decrease in a second event
Correlations such as are virtually never found in applied psychological research

18. DECISIONS ABOUT DOING RESEARCH
What is the best technique for answering a question?
Questionnaires and interviews
Laboratory experiments
Standardized tests
Animal models

19. DECISIONS ABOUT DOING RESEARCH (CONT’D)
Interview
Technique for obtaining information by asking questions, ranging from open-ended to highly structured, about a subject’s behaviors and attitudes, usually in a one-on-one situation
Questionnaire
Technique for obtaining information by asking subjects to read a list of written questions and check off specific answers

20. DECISIONS ABOUT DOING RESEARCH (CONT’D)
Laboratory experiments
Techniques to gather information about the brain, genes, or behavior with the least error and bias by using a controlled environment that allows careful observation and measurement
Standardized tests
Technique to obtain information by administering a psychological test that has been given to hundreds of people and shown to reliably measure thought patterns, personality traits, emotions, or behaviors

21. DECISIONS ABOUT DOING RESEARCH (CONT’D)
Animal models
Involves examining or manipulating some behavioral, genetic, or physiological factor that closely approximates some human problem, disease, or condition
Example
researchers genetically altered mice to have extra receptors for brain chemicals involved in schizophrenia

22. DECISIONS ABOUT DOING RESEARCH (CONT’D)
Choosing research settings
Naturalistic setting
relatively normal environment in which researchers gather information by observing individuals’ behaviors without attempting to change or control the situation
Laboratory setting
involves studying individuals under systematic and controlled conditions, with many of the real-world influences eliminated

23. SCIENTIFIC METHOD: EXPERIMENT
Approach of gathering information and answering questions so that errors and biases are minimized
Experiment
a method for identifying cause-and-effect relationships by following a set of rules and guidelines that minimize the possibility of error, bias, and chance occurrences

24. SCIENTIFIC METHOD: EXPERIMENT (CONT’D)
Conducting an experiment: seven rules
Rule 1: Ask
Rule 2: Identify
Rule 3: Choose
Rule 4: Assign
Rule 5: Manipulate
Rule 6: Measure
Rule 7: Analyze

25. SCIENTIFIC METHOD: EXPERIMENT (CONT’D)
Rule 1: Ask
Hypothesis
Educated guess about some phenomenon stated in precise, concrete language to rule out any confusion or error in the meaning of its terms

26. SCIENTIFIC METHOD: EXPERIMENT (CONT’D)
Rule 2: Identify
Independent variable
a treatment or something that the researcher controls or manipulates
Dependent variable
one or more of the subjects’ behaviors that are used to measure the potential effects of the treatment or independent variable

27. SCIENTIFIC METHOD: EXPERIMENT (CONT’D)
Rule 3: Choose
Random selection
each participant in a sample population has an equal chance of being selected for the experiment
Rule 4: Assign
Experimental group
those who receive the treatment
control group (participants who undergo all the same procedures as the experimental participants but don’t receive the treatment)

28. SCIENTIFIC METHOD: EXPERIMENT (CONT’D)
Rule 5: Manipulate
Double-blind procedure
neither participants nor researchers know which group is receiving which treatment
Rule 6: Measure
By giving the experimental group a different treatment than the control group, researchers can measure how the independent variable (treatment) affects those behaviors selected as the dependent variables

29. SCIENTIFIC METHOD: EXPERIMENT (CONT’D)
Rule 7: Analyze
Statistical procedures
used to determine whether differences observed in dependent variables (behaviors) are due to independent variables (treatment) or to error or chance occurrence

30. APPLICATION: RESEARCH CONCERNS
Concerns about being a subject
Human and animal
Code of ethics
American Psychological Association publishes a code of ethics and conduct for psychologists to follow when doing research, counseling, teaching, and related activities
Code spells out the responsibilities of psychologists and the rights of participants

31. APPLICATION: RESEARCH CONCERNS (CONT’D)
Debriefing
Includes explaining the purpose and method of the experiment, asking subjects their feelings about participating in the experiment, and helping the subjects deal with possible guilt or doubts that arise from their behaviors

32. APPLICATION: RESEARCH CONCERNS (CONT’D)
Role of deception
One way that researchers control for participants’ expectations is to use bogus procedures or instructions that prevent participants from learning the experiment’s true purpose
Researchers must justify the deceptive techniques by the scientific, educational, or applied value of the study and can only use deception if no other reasonable way to test the hypothesis is available

33. APPLICATION: RESEARCH CONCERNS (CONT’D)33

34. APPLICATION: RESEARCH CONCERNS (CONT’D)
Ethics of animal research
How many animals are used in research?
estimated over 25 million animals used each year in biomedical research
Are research animals mistreated?
of the millions of animals used in research, only a few cases of animal mistreatment have been confirmed
researchers support the Animal Research Act

35. APPLICATION: RESEARCH CONCERNS (CONT’D)
Ethics of animal research
Is the use of animals justified?
researchers are currently using animals to study epilepsy, Alzheimer’s disease, fetal alcohol syndrome, schizophrenia, AIDS, and transplantation of brain tissue, none of which is possible with human subjects
Who checks on the use of animals in research?
US Department of Agriculture
universities hire veterinarians
universities have animal subject committees

36. APPLICATION: RESEARCH CONCERNS (CONT’D)
Ethics of animal research
How do we strike a balance?
many experts in the scientific, medical, and mental health communities believe that the conscientious and responsible use of animals in research is justified and should continue