1. Chapter 18- Circulatory System: Blood

2. Roles of Blood Respiration Nutrition Waste elimination
Thermoregulation
Immune system
Water and Acid/base balance
Internal communication

3. Functions
Carries- oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, wastes, hormones, and heat.
Protection – inflammation, destroys microorganisms and cancer cells, antibodies neutralize toxins, initiates clotting.
Regulation – transfers water to and from tissues. Helps stabilize water balance, buffers acids and bases, and helps stabilize pH.

4. Blood Made of two components –
Plasma – clear extracellular fluid. Proteins, enzymes, nutrients, wastes, hormones, and gases. (55% of blood)
Plasma proteins
Albumins – smallest. Affects viscosity and osmolarity.
Globulins – alpha, beta, & gamma
Fibrinogen – precursor of fibrin

5. Formed elements – blood cells and platelets (bone marrow).
Erythrocytes (red blood cells) (RBC) carry gases
Leukocytes (white blood cells) (WBC) antibodies
Granulocytes
Neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils
Agranulocytes
Lmphocytes
monocytes

6. Hematocrit – Ratio of plasma to formed elements
Viscosity – resistance of a fluid to flow
Whole blood –
Plasma – 2.0
Osmolarity – total amount of dissolved particles
High osmolarity – blood stream absorbs too much fluid, BP goes up.
Low osmolarity – blood stream does not absorb enough fluid, edema, swollen tissues.

7. Blood cell production Leukocyte production – leukopoiesis – 3 pathways
1. B progenitors become B lymphocytes
2. T progenitors become T lymphocytes
3. granulocyte – macrophage colony-forming units become granulocytes and monocytes.
Red bone marrow – stores granulocytes and monocytes until needed.
Lymphocytes – develop in the bone marrow, migrate to the thymus, and mature there. Move on to spleen, lymph nodes, and other places. Responsible for long term immunity. Survive for decades.

8. Granulocytes – circulate in the blood for 4-8 hours, then migrate to tissues for 4-5 days. What are the types of granulocytes?
Monocytes – circulate in the blood for hours, migrate to the tissues and change into macrophages, live for years.

9. Hemopoiesis – cellular comments of blood production
Hemopoietic tissues – yolk sac – a membrane all vertebrates produce that are blood islands that produce stem cells that colonize fetal bone marrow, liver, spleen, and thymus.
Liver stops erythropoiesis around birth. Spleen stops producing RBCs soon after birth, but produces lymphocytes for life.
1. after birth – all 7 formed cells are produced in red bone marrow.
2. also, lymphocytes are produced in thymus, tonsils, lymph nodes, spleen, and intestines.

10. Formation of RBCs Erythrocyte – negative feedback system.
Drop in RBC count – hemorrhaging, blood will have less O2 – hypoxemia. Sensed by kidneys and produces a hormone that stimulates RBC production.
Emphysema – changes in lung tissue cannot be compensated for, but the body tries resulting in polycythemia – Too many RBCs.
Iron is necessary. Not enough leads to problems.
Other coenzymes needed – vitamin B12, folic acid, vitamin C, and copper.

11. Anemia Any deficiency in the number of erythrocytes. Types of Anemia:
Loss of blood
1. bleeding – hemorrhage
2. hookworm
Destruction of RBCs
Parasitic infections
Lead poisoning

12. Improper formation of RBCs
Sickle cell anemia
Cooley’s anemia
Familial hemolytic jaundice – spleen activity makes the RBCs fragile, they break.
Pernicious anemia – vitamin B12 deficiency
Iron deficiency – anemic.
Leukemia – over production of leucocytes.

13. Abnormalities in Leukocyte count
Normal count: 5,000 – 10,000 cells/mL
Leukopenia – below normal. Poisoning, radiation sickness, AIDS, measles, mumps, chicken pox, poliomyelitis.
Leukocytosis – above normal. Infection, allergies, other diseases, dehydration, and emotional disturbances.

14. Leukemia – cancer of the hemopoietic tissues
Leukemia – cancer of the hemopoietic tissues. Produces too much or high numbers of leukocytes and their precursors.
Acute leukemia – appears suddenly, rapid decline, death within a few months.
Chronic leukemia – slow development, typical survival 3 years
Treatment – chemotherapy and bone marrow transplant
Side effects – anemia, hemorrhaging, and infections

15. Blood Types

16. Discovered by Karl Landsteiner, won Nobel Prize
Antigens (agglutinogens)- proteins on the surface of RBCs.
Antibodies (agglutinins) – plasma proteins
Blood types: A, B, AB, and O (ABO blood typing).
Antigens of ABO blood group are membrane proteins with short carbohydrate chains attached.
Antibodies of the ABO blood group appear at 2-8 months of age in response to bacteria in the gut.
Antibody A called anti-A, reacts against antigen A.
Antibody B, called anti-B, reacts against antigen B.

17. Universal recipient – AB Universal donor - O
ABO typing is done by placing a drop of blood in a drop of anti-A serum and another in anti-B serum.
Which ever one clumps, the blood is that type.
If both clump then type AB
If neither clumps then type O
Universal recipient – AB
Universal donor - O

18. Rh group Determined by three genes C,D, and E.
Each has 2 alleles. (C,c/D,d/E,e)
No matter what the C & E genotype is, if a person is DD or Dd, they have antigen Rh and are Rh positive.
If dd, person lacks Rh antigen, Rh-
Blood type is written (A- or A+)