1. 07/09/2015 B7 Further Biology M Barker Shirebrook Academy (OCR 21 st Century)

2. 07/09/2015 B7.1 Peak Performance – Movement and Exercise

3. 07/09/2015 The Skeletal System The internal skeleton of a vertebrate does 3 jobs: 1)It gives the body SHAPE 2)It allows the body to MOVE 3)It PROTECTS the major organs

4. 07/09/2015 Joint Movement

5. 07/09/2015 A typical joint – the knee Synovial fluid – an oily substance that reduces friction Cartilage – stops the bones from rubbing against each other Ligaments – hold the joint together

6. 07/09/2015 Medical History Assessment Factors to be included in a medical assessment Symptoms Current Medication Alcohol consumption Tobacco consumption Level of physical activity Family medical history Previous treatments

7. 07/09/2015 Medical Treatment Project Task: Produce a project (PowerPoint, leaflet, poster etc) on how medical treatments are administered. Your project should include information on the following: 1)How patient assessments are carried out 2)The benefits of regular contact and detailed record keeping 3)What needs to be done after a diagnosis 4)How and why physiotherapy might be administered 5)How progress can be monitored and assessed 6)Injuries – sprains, torn ligaments, dislocations etc, including what they are and how you treat them.

8. 07/09/2015 Body-Mass Index A commonly-used way to indicate is someone is overweight or underweight is the Body Mass Index (BMI): BMI = Mass (kg) Height 2 (m 2 ) BMIMeaning <18.5Underweight 18.5-25Ideal 25-30Overweight 30-40Obese

9. 07/09/2015 Common Injuries What are these injuries? Dislocated shoulder Sprained ankle Torn ligament

10. 07/09/2015 Treating a Sprained Ankle Here’s a sprained ankle: To treat a sprained ankle you’d use the RICE method - R – I – C – E - Rest Ice Compression Elevation

11. 07/09/2015 B7.2 Peak Performance - Circulation

12. 07/09/2015 The Circulatory system The circulatory system is responsible for pumping ______ around the body. We need blood to be taken around the body because blood contains ________ and _______. These are needed so that all the ____ in our bodies can produce _____ through _________. The main organs in the circulatory system are the _____, the lungs and the kidneys. Words – energy, heart, blood, glucose, respiration, oxygen, cells

13. 07/09/2015 The four parts of blood 1. RED BLOOD CELLS – packed with haemoglobin and carry ______ around the body. They have no _______ and a bioconcave shape for increased surface area. 2. PLATELETS – small bits of cells that lie around waiting for a cut to happen so that they can ____ (for a scab). 3. WHITE BLOOD CELLS – kill invading _______ by producing _________ or engulfing (“eating”) the microbe. These three are all carried around by the PLASMA (a straw-coloured liquid). Plasma transports CO 2 and ______ as well as taking away waste products to the ______. Words – antibodies, clot, kidneys, oxygen, nucleus, glucose, microbes.

14. 07/09/2015 The Heart 1. Deoxygenated blood (i.e. blood without oxygen) enters through the vena cava into the right atrium 2. It’s then pumped through the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle 3. It’s then pumped through the semi-lunar valve up to the lungs through the pulmonary artery 4. Oxygenated blood from the lungs enters through the pulmonary vein into the left atrium 5. It’s then pumped through the bicuspid valve into the left ventricle 6. It’s then pumped out of the aorta to the rest of the body

15. 07/09/2015 “Double Circulation” 1) Blood gets pumped from the heart to the lungs and picks up oxygen. The haemoglobin in the cells becomes oxyhaemoglobin 2) The blood is then taken back to the heart… 3) The heart pumps the blood to the intestine (where oxygen and glucose are removed). The oxyhaemoglobin is split up into oxygen and haemoglobin… 4) … and to the rest of the body (where oxygen is also removed) 5) After the oxygen and glucose have been removed for respiration the blood is sent back to the heart and starts again

16. 07/09/2015 Capillaries and Capillary tissue Here’s a capillary: Capillaries are tiny blood vessels that have permeable walls so that substances can diffuse in and out (like oxygen in the lungs and glucose in the intestine). Here’s how this works: Capillary Tissue fluid As blood passes through the capillary beds molecules like oxygen and glucose are forced out to form the tissue fluid. They then diffuse out into the cells and substances like carbon dioxide and urea diffuse back into the capillaries. glucoseoxygen Surrounding cells

17. 07/09/2015 B7.3 Peak Performance – Energy Balance

18. 07/09/2015 Body Temperature Effectors (muscles and sweat glands) carry out the response. Some effectors work “antagonistacally” – what does this mean? Nerve endings in the skin detect the external temperature Temperature detectors in the brain (the hypothalamus) detect the blood temperature The brain coordinates a response using hormones

19. 07/09/2015 Maintaining Body Temperature ColdHot Vasodilation Vasoconstriction Here are two ways your body will change to lose surplus heat: Excessive exercise can lead to dehydration, which may lead to reduced sweating and a further increase in body temperature.

20. 07/09/2015 Low Body temperature What does your body do to try to keep body temperature constant when you are cold? Shivering occurs, which results in some of the energy transferred in respiration being used to warm the surrounding tissue. Also, blood vessels constrict (“vasoconstriction”) in order to restrict blood flow through skin capillaries.

21. 07/09/2015Diabetes What is diabetes? What do the pens (above right) do? What does an insulin injection (above left) do? What is the difference between Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetes? How does physical activity affect Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetics?

22. 07/09/2015Diabetes Diabetes is a ________ in which a person’s blood sugar (i.e. glucose) level may rise to a _______ level. Type 1 diabetes is when the ______ doesn’t produce enough _________, whereas type 2 diabetes is when the body no longer responds to its own insulin or doesn’t make enough of it. Type 1 diabetes can be controlled using insulin ________ whereas type 2 diabetes can be controlled by careful _______ and exercise. Diabetics have to test their blood sugar level before they decide how much insulin to _______ themselves with. Diets high in fibre and complex carbohydrates can help to maintain a healthy sugar level. Words – insulin, disease, inject, dangerous, eating, pancreas, injections

23. 07/09/2015 Diabetes and Obesity % obesity of US population No. of people (in millions) with Diabetes

24. 07/09/2015 More interesting statistics… No. of fast food outlets No. of people (in millions) with Diabetes

25. 07/09/2015 B7.4 What can we learn from natural ecosystems?

26. 07/09/2015Ecosystems “Ecosystem” is a term used to describe all of the organisms living together as a community in a particular habitat and can often be self-supporting other than the need for an energy source. Possible waste products from an ecosystem: Waste products Oxygen from trees Carbon dioxide from animals Dead organic matter Notice that waste products from some organisms are used by other organisms – this is a “closed loop” system and a perfect closed loop is when nothing is wasted.

27. 07/09/2015 An example of a loop in an ecosystem - Carbon CO 2 in air 1. CO 2 is taken in by plants 2. Plants release CO 2 through respiration 3. The carbon taken in by plants is then eaten by animals 5. Animals (and plants) die and their remains are fed on by microbes 6. These microbes also release CO 2 through respiration 4. Animals release CO 2 through respiration Notice that no ecosystem is a perfect closed loop due to the loss of some output. Where could this happen in the carbon cycle?

28. 07/09/2015 Stable Ecosystems A “stable ecosystem” is one where the outputs (losses) are balanced by gains, e.g. a rainforest: Examples of why a rainforest is a closed ecosystem: Some organisms produce large numbers of reproductive structures like eggs and flowers. The ones that don’t survive into adulthood are recycled into the ecosystem. The vegetation prevents soil erosion (by binding the soil) and extremes of temperature and also encourages cloud formation, so that whatever is lost from a river is replaced by rainfall

29. 07/09/2015 Human impact on ecosystems Humans rely on ecosystems for lots of things, including: Is it possible for humans to run a closed ecosystem on our own? - Clean air - Water - Food - Fish - Game/meat - Non-recycled waste? - Burning fossil fuels? Here are some ways in which humans can affect an ecosystem:

30. 07/09/2015 Accumulation of pesticides Insecticides can wash into a stream or lake where they are taken up by microscopic water plants. Consider the food chain: Although the level of insecticides in the plants is small, it will build up through the food chain due to the number of organisms in each stage. In this example, if each plant had “one bit” of pesticide, the bird will have eaten 9 bits.

31. 07/09/2015 Eutrophication Yet another example of pollution, eutrophication is when lakes become stagnant due to careless use of fertiliser. There are six steps: 1) Inorganic fertilisers used on fields are washed into the lake 3) This growth causes overcrowding and many plants die due to lack of enough light or food 2) The fertiliser causes increased growth in water plants

32. 07/09/2015 Eutrophication 4) Microorganisms and bacteria increase in number due to the extra dead material 5) These microorganisms use up the oxygen in the lake during respiration 6) The lack of oxygen causes the death of fish and other aquatic animals Can’t…breathe…

33. 07/09/2015 Eutrophication 4) Microorganisms and bacteria increase in number due to the extra dead material 5) These microorganisms use up the oxygen in the lake during respiration 6) The lack of oxygen causes the death of fish and other aquatic animals

34. 07/09/2015 Removing Biomass from an Ecosystem Deforestation occurs when biomass like trees is removed from a natural closed loop system for use by humans: Over-fishing in a lake can also be unsustainable.

35. 07/09/2015 Sustainable Development Sustainable development is all about preserving the world for tomorrow. Examples of sustainable development include: 1)Replanting trees after chopping them down 2)Limiting the number of fish allowed in a catch (a “quota”) 3)Protecting endangered species The main point is – “don’t use resources at a rate quicker than they are made”

36. 07/09/2015 Crude Oil Here’s some crude oil: Crude oil can never be considered part of a closed system as it takes millions of years to form. Crude oil is formed from the decay of dead organisms, who basically got their energy from the sun millions of years ago – crude oil is called “fossil sunlight energy”. The sun is a sustainable source of energy for natural ecosystems and sustainable agriculture – without it, we can’t survive!

37. 07/09/2015 Natural Ecosystems and Human Needs Natural ecosystems should be preserved but we also need to look after our basic needs! Some societies have tried replacing natural vegetation with agricultural crops and livestock, but this can often lead to problems like a loss of biodiversity or desertification

38. 07/09/2015 B7.5 New Technologies

39. 07/09/2015 Using Bacteria Here are some pictures of bacteria: Bacteria are useful for industrial and genetic processes for many reasons: - Rapid _________ - Presence of ________ - Simple biochemistry - Ability to make complex _________ - Lack of ______ concerns Bacteria and fungi can be grown on large scales (__________) to produce things like antibiotics, single-cell proteins, enzymes for food and enzymes for products like ________ ______ and biofuels. Words – washing powder, molecules, reproduction, plasmids, fermentation, ethical

40. 07/09/2015 Genetic modification - Insulin Insulin is a hormone produced by the pancreas to help control blood sugar levels. Diabetics can’t produce enough insulin and often need to inject it. Until recently, insulin was taken from pigs and cows. Insulin can now be made by genetic modification. Genetic modification is when a gene from one organism is transferred to another and continues to work:

41. 07/09/2015 Genetic modification - Insulin Step 1: Using RESTRICTION ENZYMES “cut out” the part of the human chromosome that is responsible for producing insulin. Step 2: Using another restriction enzyme cut open a ring of bacterial DNA (a “plasmid”). Other enzymes are then used to insert the piece of human DNA into the plasmid. Step 3: Place the plasmid into a bacterium which will start to divide rapidly. As it divides it will replicate the plasmid and make millions of them, each with the instruction to produce insulin. Commercial quantities of insulin can then be produced.

42. 07/09/2015 The Steps in Genetic Modification Here are the basic steps in genetic modification: Step 1 – isolate and replicate the required gene Step 2 – put the gene into a suitable vector (virus or plasmid) Step 3 – use the vector to insert the gene into a new cell Step 4 – select the modified individuals As well as making insulin, this procedure can also be used to make herbicide resistance in plants. How would this help food production?

43. 07/09/2015 Genetic Modification AdvantagesDisadvantages Improving crop yield Improving resistance to pesticides Extend shelf-life Manufacture a certain chemical (e.g. insulin) Convenience Genetically modified organisms may be expensive Unknown effects on ecosystems Effects may be passed on to other crops, e.g. weed resistance spreading from crops to weeds Ethical issues

44. 07/09/2015 Genetic Testing Task: Produce a report describing how genetic testing (e.g. finding out who the real father is) is done. I am your father Your report should include: 1)How genetic testing is done (in 3 or 4 stages) 2)The role of DNA and UV in the process 3)Other examples of things that can be genetically tested

45. 07/09/2015 How Genetic Testing works Here are the four stages in genetic testing: Isolate the DNA sample from white blood cells Produce the gene probe labelled with a fluorescent chemical – this will find the faulty gene Add the labelled gene probe (marker) to the DNA sample to find the faulty gene Use UV to detect the marker and therefore indicate the position of the gene or the presence of a specific allele in the DNA sample Gene probe Faulty gene Gene probe Faulty gene

46. 07/09/2015Nanotechnology Nanotechnology is a new branch of science that refers to structures built from a few hundred atoms and are 1- 100nm big (i.e. about the size of a molecule). They show different properties to the same materials in bulk, partly because they also have a large surface area to volume ratio and their properties could lead to new developments in computers, building materials etc. Definition:

47. 07/09/2015 Two examples of nanotechnology Nanotechnology can also be used to detect contaminants – for example, a milk carton could tell you when the milk has gone off. Silver nanoparticles can be used to give fibres antibacterial properties – look at what they do to e-coli bacteria: Normal e-coli E-coli affected by silver nanoparticles

48. 07/09/2015 Stem Cell research White blood cell Egg cell (ovum) Ciliated epithelial cell Nerve cell (neurone) A stem cell is a cell that hasn’t yet specialised into other forms of cell: Adult stem cells can potentially be used to treat leukaemia and spinal chord injuries.

49. 07/09/2015 Biomedical Engineering Biomedical engineering is when devices like pacemakers and artificial valves are used to treat heart problems or irregular heartbeats: