1. Land and Human Populations

2. MUCH OF JAMAICA’S LAND MASS IS CONSIDERED AS ONE LARGE WATERSHED. -Watersheds are also called drainage basins or catchment areas -They are areas of land that drain water into bodies of surface water. -Jamaica’s land mass is divided into 26 watersheds to facilitate easier management.

4. Functions of Watersheds -Forested watersheds act as giant sponges increasing infiltration -They release water slowly moderating flooding and maintaining stream flows in dry periods

5. They control soil erosion thereby improving water quality They are habitats for many species They regulate rainfall on a small scale (via transpiration) Functions of Watersheds

6. Rainfall Impact and Trees Trees break the impact of rainfall on the soil thus reducing soil erosion.

7. Competing uses for land: Forests (31%) Agriculture (37%) Housing and Industry (5%) Roads Waste Disposal

8. Jamaican Watersheds ->1/3 have deteriorated Causes of Jamaican Watershed Destruction 1. Unsuitable hillside agricultural practices 2. Illegal settlements on hillside lands

9. Causes of Jamaican Watershed Destruction cont’d 3. Deforestation due to illegal removal of trees for fuelwood, charcoal production, yam sticks and lumber 4. Forest fires caused by individuals 5. Unapproved quarrying and sand mining

10. Effects of Watershed Destruction 1.Massive soil loss through soil erosion 2.Siltation of drains and rivers 3.Destructive flooding downstream 4.Water pollution 5.Reduced water availability and quality 6.Loss of habitat for flora and fauna

11. Agriculture - the growing of crops & the tending of livestock for subsistence, sale, or exchange

12. Three Main Types of Agriculture 1.Subsistence 2.Industrialised 3.Sustainable

13. Subsistence Agriculture cont’d Features of Low Input / Subsistence Agriculture: Human Labour Slash and Burn Shifting Cultivation Fallow Periods Animal Manure Mixed Cropping

14. Industrialised Agriculture -also called modern or advanced agriculture -one crop (monoculture / monocropping) or animal for sale -use large amounts of : a)fossil fuel energy b)water

15. Industrialised Agriculture cont’d Features of High Input/Conventional Agriculture: Mechanisation Monocropping Synthetic Pesticides Synthetic Fertilizers Genetic Engineering Irrigation

16. Mechanisation -causes land degradation through soil compaction -exacerbates soil erosion -causes decline in soil fertility -erosion damage causes decreased water quality

17. Soil Erosion - movement of soil components, especially surface litter and topsoil, from one place to another, usually by exposure to wind or flowing water

18. Soil Erosion cont’d Soil Erosion is caused by: Farming Logging Building Overgrazing Four-wheeling

19. Soil Erosion cont’d The 3 Main Effects of Soil Erosion are: 1. Loss of topsoil 2. Reduced productivity 3. Surface water pollution

20. Monocropping: - also called monoculture -cultivation of a single crop, usually on a large area of land -simplifies ecosystems reducing biodiversity -encourages the build up of pests thus increasing the use of pesticides -depletes the soil of nutrients

21. Use of Pesticides Pesticide - any chemical designed to kill or inhibit the growth of an organism that people consider undesirable - fast-breeding insect species undergo natural selection and develop genetic resistance to chemical pesticides

22. Effects of Pesticide Use - harmful to the environment -Pesticides linked to cancers and low sperm count -persistent pesticides adhere to sediment and become bioaccumulated and biomagnified -mobile

23. Use of Fertilizers Fertilizers - substances that add plant nutrients to soil and improves its ability to grow crops 2 Main Types of Fertilizers: - Organic Fertilizer - Commercial Inorganic Fertilizer

24. Commercial Inorganic Fertilizer -commercially prepared mixtures of plant nutrients applied to the soil to restore fertility and increase crop yields -supply only 2 or 3 of the 20+ nutrients needed by plants -leads to soil compaction -water pollution

25. Irrigation -The application of water to crops -Types -Natural/Rainfall -Flood irrigation -Overhead/sprinkler -Drip irrigation (most efficient - 90%) -Flood irrigation is wasteful and causes salinisation and waterlogging.

26. Impacts of Agriculture on the Environment cont’d 1. Chemical Damage - pollution of rivers & streams from pesticide and fertilizer runoff - nitrates & phosphates in waterbodies, drinking water, food & air

27. Impacts of Agriculture on the Environment cont’d 2.Disruption of Habitat - over-fertilization of rivers caused by runoff of nitrates and phosphates (eutrophication)

32. Impacts of Agriculture on the Environment cont’d 3.Loss of Biodiversity - reduction in nutrient recycling soil organisms - loss of plant genetic diversity - endangerment & extinction of wildlife

33. Impacts of Agriculture on the Environment cont’d 4. Salinisation Due to Irrigation Salinisation: - accumulation of salts in soil that can eventually make the soil unable to support plant growth - lowers crop growth and yields - kills crop plants (causes rotting of roots) & ruins the land

34. Impacts of Agriculture on the Environment cont’d 5.Desertification - process whereby agricultural productivity of land falls by 10% - conversion of rangeland to desert-like land Caused by: - mechanization, salinization, overgrazing, shifting agriculture

35. Impacts of Agriculture on the Environment cont’d 6.Slash & Burn Cultivation - also called Shifting Cultivation - plots abandoned after 2-5 years due to loss of soil fertility

36. Impacts of Agriculture on the Environment cont’d 7. Overgrazing - destruction of vegetation when too many grazing animals feed too long & exceed the carrying capacity of a rangeland area

37. Sustainable Agriculture - Crops grown in harmony with the environment - Health of humans and livestock important - Environment important - Workers important - e.g. Organic agriculture

38. Sustainable Agriculture Cont’d Includes the use of: - Companion cropping/mixed farming - Soil conservation (preventing soil erosion) - Addition of organic matter - Use of alternatives to pesticides

39. Soil Conservation Methods -methods used to: ◦ reduce soil erosion ◦ prevent depletion of soil nutrients ◦ restore nutrients -most methods involve keeping the soil covered with vegetation

40. Soil Conservation Methods cont’d Major Methods Include: 1.Conservation tillage 2.Contour farming, Terracing, Strip cropping, & Alley cropping 3.Windbreaks / Shelterbelts 4.Maintaining & Restoring soil fertility

41. Soil Conservation Methods cont’d 1.Conservation Tillage - crop cultivation with little or no soil disturbance ▪ Minimum Tillage ▪ No-till Farming http://www.monsanto.com/biotech- gmo/images/story/pf/benefits_topic_pf.jpg

42. MINIMUM TILLAGE http://www.ck12.org/ck12/images?id=113628

43. Soil Conservation Methods cont’d 2.Contour Farming, Terracing, Strip Cropping & Alley Cropping - used mainly on sloping land which is more prone to erosion ▪ Contour Farming - used on gently sloping land

44. CONTOUR FARMING http://farm3.static.flickr.com/2190/2873940406_72cda96baa_o.jpg

45. Soil Conservation Methods cont’d 2.Contour Farming, Terracing, Strip Cropping & Alley Cropping cont’d ▪ Terracing - used on steeper slopes

46. TERRACING http://static.panoramio.com/photos/original/4106996.jpg

47. Soil Conservation Methods cont’d 2.Contour Farming, Terracing, Strip Cropping & Alley Cropping cont’d ▪ Alley Cropping (Agroforestry) -planting crops with rows of trees on each side or amongst trees of the forest 2.Contour Farming, Terracing, Strip Cropping & Alley Cropping cont’d ▪ Alley Cropping (Agroforestry) -planting crops with rows of trees on each side or amongst trees of the forest Soil Conservation Methods cont’d

48. 3. Gully Reclamation & Windbreaks cont’d ▪ Windbreaks (Shelterbelts) - row of trees planted to block wind flow 3. Windbreaks ▪ Windbreaks (Shelterbelts) - row of trees planted to block wind flow

49. Soil Conservation Methods cont’d 4. Maintaining & Restoring Soil Fertility Involves the use of: 1. organic fertilizers 2. crop rotation (may add nutrients to soil)

50. Alternatives to Pesticides 1.Agricultural Methods: tillage of land – to expose pests proper timing of planting, fertilizing and irrigating Crop rotation plant rows of hedges or trees (habitat for natural predators to pest) 2. Genetic Control breed crops and animals resistant to pests sterilize members of the pest population

51. Alternatives to Pesticides cont’d 3. Natural Enemies (Biological Control) predators, parasites & pathogens can be encouraged or imported to regulate pest populations 4. Use of hormones and pheromones Pheromone – chemical sex attractant that may be used in traps Hormones – manipulated and released at certain times can disrupt growth and development of pest

52. Alternatives to Pesticides cont’d 5. Quarantine restriction of the importation of exotic plant and animal material that might harbour pests INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT (IPM) combines use of biological, cultural and chemical control non-chemical controls used as far as possible; pesticides used sparingly when other methods fail

53. Organic Fertilizer - organic materials, such as animal manure, applied as a source of plant nutrients 3 Basic Types of Organic Fertilizer - Animal Manure - Green Manure - Compost

54. Organic Fertilizer cont’d Animal Manure - dung and urine of farm animals - improves soil structure - stimulates beneficial bacteria and fungi Green Manure - freshly-cut or still-growing vegetation that is ploughed into the soil

55. Organic Fertilizer cont’d Compost - partially decomposed organic plant and animal matter - made up of animal manure, topsoil, kitchen scraps - rich, natural fertilizer

56. Other Solutions to Land Pollution sustaining existing forests and national parks restoring damaged areas support efforts to protect, expand, mend Jamaica’s national park system support efforts to protect large areas of remaining undeveloped lands reduce or eliminate the input of pollutants or waste

57. Legislations The Watersheds Protection Act, 1963 - law governing watersheds in Jamaica - administered by NEPA - reduces soil erosion - ensures proper land use - maintain optimum levels of groundwater - promote regular flows in waterways

58. Other Legislation Relevant to Land Pollution Forest Act Rural Agricultural Development Act Water Resources Act Town and Country Planning Act Land Development and Utilization Act Country Fires Act The Mining Act Wildlife Protection Act