1. Organizational Behavior

2. 2 Chapter 6 Study Questions  What is motivation?  What do the content theories suggest about individual needs and motivation?  What do the process theories suggest about individual motivation?  What are reinforcement theories and how are they linked to motivation?

3. 3 Study Question 1:What is motivation?  Motivation refers to forces within an individual that account for the level, direction, and persistence of effort expended at work. – Direction — an individual’s choice when presented with a number of possible alternatives. – Level — the amount of effort a person puts forth. – Persistence — the length of time a person stays with a given action.

4. 4 Study Question 1:What is motivation?  Categories of motivation theories. – Content theories. Focus on profiling the needs that people seek to fulfill. – Process theories. Focus on people’s thought or cognitive processes. – Reinforcement theories. Emphasize controlling behavior by manipulating its consequences.

5. 5 Study Question 2: What do the content theories suggest about individual needs and motivation?  Content theories. – Motivation results from the individual’s attempts to satisfy needs.  Major content theories. – Hierarchy of needs theory. – ERG theory. – Acquired needs theory. – Two-factor theory.  Each theory offers a slightly different view.

6. 6 Study Question 2: What do the content theories suggest about individual needs and motivation?

7. 7  ERG theory. – Existence needs. Desire for physiological and material well-being. – Relatedness needs. Desire for satisfying interpersonal relationships. – Growth needs. Desire for continued personal growth and development.

8. 8 Study Question 2: What do the content theories suggest about individual needs and motivation?  Acquired needs theory. – Need for achievement (nAch). The desire to do something better or more efficiently, to solve problems, or to master complex tasks. – Need for affiliation (nAff). The desire to establish and maintain friendly and warm relations with others. – Need for power (nPower). The desire to control others, to influence their behavior, or to be responsible for others.

9. 9 Study Question 2: What do the content theories suggest about individual needs and motivation?

10. 10 Study Question 3: What do the process theories suggest about individual motivation?  Process theories. – Focus on the thought processes through which people choose among alternative courses of action.  The chapter focuses on two process theories: – Equity theory. – Expectancy theory.

11. 11 Study Question 3: What do the process theories suggest about individual motivation?  Equity theory. – People gauge the fairness of their work outcomes in relation to others. – Felt negative inequity. Individual feels he/she has received relatively less than others in proportion to work inputs. – Felt positive inequity. Individual feels he/she has received relatively more than others in proportion to work inputs.

12. 12 Study Question 3: What do the process theories suggest about individual motivation?  Equity restoration behaviors. – Change work inputs. – Change the outcomes received. – Leave the situation. – Change the comparison person. – Psychologically distort the comparisons. – Take actions to change the inputs or outputs of the comparison person.

13. 13 Study Question 3: What do the process theories suggest about individual motivation?  Coping methods for dealing with equity comparisons. – Recognize that equity comparisons are inevitable in the workplace. – Anticipate felt negative inequities when rewards are given. – Communicate clear evaluations for any rewards given. – Communicate an appraisal of performance on which the reward is based. – Communicate comparison points that are appropriate in the situation

14. 14 Study Question 3: What do the process theories suggest about individual motivation?

15. 15 Study Question 3: What do the process theories suggest about individual motivation?  A person’s motivation is a multiplicative function of expectancy, instrumentality, and valence (M = E x I x V).  Motivational implications of expectancy theory. – Motivation is sharply reduced when, expectancy, instrumentality, or valence approach zero. – Motivation is high when expectancy and instrumentality are high and valence is strongly positive.

16. 16 Study Question 3: What do the process theories suggest about individual motivation?  Extrinsic rewards. – Positively valued work outcomes given to the individual by some other person.  Intrinsic rewards. – Positively valued work outcomes that the individual receives directly as a result of task performance.

17. 17 Study Question 3: What do the process theories suggest about individual motivation?  Guidelines for the distribution of extrinsic rewards. – Clearly identify the desired behaviors. – Maintain an inventory of rewards that have the potential to serve as positive reinforcers. – Recognize individual differences in the rewards that will have a positive value for each person.

18. 18 Study Question 3: What do the process theories suggest about individual motivation?  Guidelines for the distribution of extrinsic rewards (cont.). – Let each person know exactly what must be done to receive a desirable reward; set clear target antecedents and give performance feedback. – Allocate rewards contingently and immediately upon the appearance of the desired behaviors. – Allocate rewards wisely in terms of scheduling the delivery of positive reinforcement.

19. 19 Study Question 4: What are reinforcement theories and how are they linked to motivation?  Reinforcement. – The administration of a consequence as a result of a behavior. – Proper management of reinforcement can change the direction, level, and persistence of an individual’s behavior.

20. 20 Study Question 4: What are reinforcement theories and how are they linked to motivation?

21. 21 Study Question 4: What are reinforcement theories and how are they linked to motivation?  Law of effect. – Theoretical basis for manipulating consequences of behavior. – Behavior that results in a pleasant outcome is likely to be repeated while behavior that results in an unpleasant outcome is not likely to be repeated.

22. 22 Study Question 4: What are reinforcement theories and how are they linked to motivation?

23. 23 Study Question 4: What are reinforcement theories and how are they linked to motivation?  Organizational behavior modification (OB Mod). – The systematic reinforcement of desirable work behavior and the nonreinforcement or punishment of unwanted work behavior. – Uses four basic strategies: Positive reinforcement. Negative reinforcement. Punishment. Extinction.

24. 24 Study Question 4: What are reinforcement theories and how are they linked to motivation?  Positive reinforcement. – The administration of positive consequences to increase the likelihood of repeating the desired behavior in similar settings. – Rewards are not necessarily positive reinforcers. – A reward is a positive reinforcer only if the behavior improves.

25. 25 Study Question 4: What are reinforcement theories and how are they linked to motivation?  Principles governing reinforcement. – Law of contingent reinforcement. The reward must be delivered only if the desired behavior is exhibited. – Law of immediate reinforcement. The reward must be given as soon as possible after the desired behavior is exhibited.

26. 26 Study Question 4: What are reinforcement theories and how are they linked to motivation?  Scheduling reinforcement. – Continuous reinforcement. Administers a reward each time the desired behavior occurs. – Intermittent reinforcement. Rewards behavior periodically — either on the basis of time elapsed or the number of desired behaviors exhibited.

27. 27 Study Question 4: What are reinforcement theories and how are they linked to motivation?

28. 28 Study Question 4: What are reinforcement theories and how are they linked to motivation?  Negative reinforcement. – Also known as avoidance. – The withdrawal of negative consequences to increase the likelihood of repeating the desired behavior in a similar setting.

29. 29 Study Question 4: What are reinforcement theories and how are they linked to motivation?  Punishment. – The administration of negative consequences or the withdrawal of positive consequences to reduce the likelihood of repeating the behavior in similar settings.

30. 30 Study Question 4: What are reinforcement theories and how are they linked to motivation?  Implications of using punishment. – Punishing poor performance enhances performance without affecting satisfaction. – Arbitrary and capricious punishment leads to poor performance and low satisfaction. – Punishment may be offset by positive reinforcement from another source.

31. 31 Study Question 4: What are reinforcement theories and how are they linked to motivation?  Extinction. – The withdrawal of the reinforcing consequences for a given behavior. – The behavior is not unlearned; it simply is not exhibited. – The behavior will reappear if it is reinforced again.

32. 32 Study Question 4: What are reinforcement theories and how are they linked to motivation?

33. 33 Study Question 4: What are reinforcement theories and how are they linked to motivation?  Ethical issues with reinforcement usage. – Is improved performance really due to reinforcement? – Is the use of reinforcement demeaning and dehumanizing? – Will managers abuse their power by exerting external control over behavior? – How can we ensure that the manipulation of consequences is done in a positive and constructive fashion?

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