1. Part 1: The Making of the Modern State
MEXICO
Part 1: The Making of the Modern State

2. Why Study Mexico?
History of…Revolution, One-Party Dominance, Authoritarianism
But has ended one-party rule, democratized, and is now considered a newly industrializing country…but many problems still exist

3. Geography & Population
One of the most geographically diverse countries
Slightly less than three times size of Texas
2,000 mile border with USA and 600 mile border with Guatemala, 160 mile border with Belize
Major Natural Resources:
oil and silver
Geography:
Includes high mountains, coastal plains, high plateaus, fertile valleys, rain forests, and deserts within an area about 3x the size of France

4. Geography & Population
Discussion Question: How has Mexico’s geography impacted its development?
Mts and deserts separate regions, and make communication/transportation difficult
Rugged terrain has limited agriculture
All this feeds into regionalism in the political culture
Geography:
Includes high mountains, coastal plains, high plateaus, fertile valleys, rain forests, and deserts within an area about 3x the size of France

5. Geography & Population
Over 114 million inhabitants makes Mexico the 2nd largest country in Latin America
60% Mestizo (mixed Amerindian & Spanish descent)
30% Amerindian (indigenous descent)
Largest Spanish speaking country in the world
78% live in urban areas
Mexico City has over million people
79% Catholic
92.7% speak Spanish
5.7% Spanish/Indigenous
.8% Indigenous only

6. Geography & Population
Northern areas much better off than the southern and central areas
Southern and Central Regions
denser population
poorer land
more ejidatarios (borrowers of land from government)
Most of indigenous population lives in south
Migration is a major issue
economic opportunities in the industrial cities of the north lead many to seek jobs in the maquiladoras, (assembly factories)

7. The Basics Developing/Transitional Democracy (since 2000)
Newly Industrialized Country
GDP/Per Capita – PPP (2012) $15,800
Moderately globalized economy
Federal – strong central gov’t
Territory divided into 31 states and one federal district (Mexico City)
Presidential
Bicameral Legislature
Independent Judiciary on Paper, Not in Practice
Corporatist Interest Group System
Multiparty (with history of one-party dominance)

8. States 31- Governors Popularly Elected
6 year term, but can never serve a second term
Every governor from PRI ( )
President can have Senate remove governor of any State in which law and order cannot be maintained
President then appoints interim governor to finish term
Gubernatorial elections are evenly distributed throughout a sexenio , so that ordinarily no more than six governorships are contested in any given year
State and municipal legislators also have substitutes elected to reward party members and to fill any possible future vacancies
One removed per year ( )
One removal per presidential term since 1964 but each president has pressured 1 to 3 governors to voluntarily resign when political crises got out of control

9. The Executive President is Head of State/Govt No V.P.
Current President: Enrique Pena Nieto (2012)
Serve 1 six year term only – Sexenio
Directly elected, simple majority (FPTP, no run-off, Nieto won with about 1/3 of vote)
Until 1990s, incumbent selected next presidential candidate (dedazo)
President:
Native-born Mexican of native-born parents (amended in 1994 to allow offspring of naturalized citizens, effective 1999)
35 years old
No Vice President
If death or resignation, federal Congress elects an interim president
Directly elected, simple majority
Under PRI’s domination, almost always named winning candidates for governors, senators, deputies, local officials
Priests and ministers of religious denominations are barred from holding public office

10. The Executive Presidential Powers – Very Strong
Initiate legislation by introducing bills into either house (90%)
Assign legislative priorities
Extensive appointment powers
Foreign policy
Create government agencies
Make policy by decree
Grant pardons
Names cabinet and can replace them
Veto legislation
Manages patronage system (informal power)
Between , all presidential legislative was approved by Mexican Congress (rubber stamp!)
Presidential Decree:
create income tax, Cabinet ministries, government corporations, major public-works projects, significant budget changes, public policies, such as nuclear energy and family planning

11. The Executive
Discussion Question: How does the role of the Mexican president compare to the Russian president?
RUSSIA:
BOTH:
MEXICO:

12. The Executive
Discussion Question: How does the role of the Mexican president compare to the Russian president?
RUSSIA:
BOTH:
MEXICO:
Limited to 2 consecutive terms
Head of State only
Election is 2 round model
Weak check of power by legislative branch
Can dissolve Duma
Directly elected
6 year terms
Power has been unchecked by judiciary
Power of appointments
Power of decree
Power to remove governors
Sexenio – no re-election
Head of State and Head of Gov’t
Election is simple majority (plurality)
Starting to be challenged by legislature (Congress)

13. The Executive Bureaucracy Parastatal Sector
Huge million people (most in Mexico City)
Patronage driven
Lower level people are guaranteed jobs
Higher level only allowed to stay in office as long as their superiors have confidence in them (confidence employees)
Parastatal Sector
A government-owned corporation or agency
Produce goods/services usually carried out by private individuals in other countries (ex: PEMEX)
Huge sector under PRI, Reforms have trimmed # of parastatals
Bureacracy:
Staff schools, state-owned industries, positions in state/local governments
Parastatal Sector:
Government started and owned many businesses in the 1940’s.
Includes businesses that are owned or subsidized by the government.
In 1982 Mexico had 1,155 businesses in the Para-Statal sector. In 1994 most of those businesses were sold and the Mexican government owned only 215 (Includes PEMEX and the electricity)

14. The Legislature
Congress was under President’s power during dominant rule of PRI
Chamber of Deputies (Lower House)
500 members
Directly elected, 3 yr terms, no consecutive terms
300 SMD, 200 PR
Senate (Upper House)
128 members
Directly elected, 6 yr terms, no consecutive terms
3 senators from each state + fed district (FPTP – 2 majority, 1 next highest vote)/Rest PR
Congress:
Becoming more active in policymaking
Started negotiating with and blocking the president’s bills
Started introducing their own bills
Less experienced than US counterparts
Chamber of Deputies has greater discretion in budgetary matters
Senate stronger say in foreign policy
Most bills must pass through both houses
Can override presidential veto
Less oversight of executive
Fewer powers to challenge executive’s control of government appointments
Senate:
The Mexican Senate's 128 members are directly elected for a six-year term of office, and may not be immediately re-elected either. Each one of Mexico's 32 federal entities chooses three senators: in each entity, the party or coalition with the largest number of votes receives two seats, and the party or coalition in second place obtains one seat. The remaining 32 seats are apportioned in a single, nationwide constituency by the largest remainder method of proportional representation, among lists polling at least two percent of the vote, taking into account invalid ballots.

15. The Legislature
Discussion Question: Should members of the Mexican Congress be allowed to get immediately re-elected? Why or why not?

16. The Judiciary Weakest Branch of Govt Code Law, Explicit Supreme Court:
Justices nominated by President and approved by Senate
11 (reduced from 26 in 1994)
Has power of judicial review on paper, but does not go against government action/policy
Supposed to serve for life, but justices often resigned after an election so president could handpick new judges
Amparo – Writ of Protection
2008 introduced reform
Oral trials replaced process that was conducted on paper
Amparo:
Writ of protection claiming their constitutional rights have been violated by specific government actions and laws
Stays (suspends) disputed governmental action until appeal can be heard by Supreme Court
Compel officials to carry out constitutional obligations
Force judges to tell a defendant the specific charges against him
Political disputes over elections are excluded
1/3 of 5,500 writs ( ) won by citizens
Oral Trials:
1st Oral Trial held in 2005 at state level
Drunk driving case
In the past:
Defense lawyers and prosecutors investigate cases, interview witnesses, gather evidence and pass their findings in writing to judges, who review the bulky files before issuing a written verdict. Information often was kept secret and there was corruption

17. The Military
Marginalized from centers of political power (under civilian control)
Used for:
Repress student protests (1968)
Deal with earthquake (1985)
Break labor strike (1989)
Deal with protest over electoral fraud
Manage Mexico City police (1997)
Combat drug trafficking
Repression, torture, killing in s and 1980s

18. Political Parties Multiparty State since 2000 (end of PRI domination)
PRI, PAN, PRD

19. Political Parties PRI (Institutional Revolutionary Party)
Founded as a coalition of elites; trading favors & power from one to another
Ruled as 1-Party System until 2000
(lost power from , but regained Presidency with election in 2012)
Corporatist Structure, brought competing elites into cabinet
Clientelism/Patron-Client System
Appeals to:
rural people
residents in South
Less educated
Older
Poorer
PRI:
Values of revolution especially land reform and empowerment of peasants
Three legged stool: laborers, peasants, bureaucrats
Anticlerical
Centralization of power
Typical Voter:
Rural area or small town
Less education than other party voters
Older and poorer than other party voters
Also includes liberals, radicals, conservatives
As country became urbanized, PRI did not have as much rural support
New generations less beholden to patronage
Internal dissension between dinosaurs and modernizers
Voters are now younger, more educated and more middle class

20. Political Parties PAN (National Action Party) Party to PRI’s Right
Created to Represent Business Interests
Advocates Regional Autonomy & Less Govt Intervention in Economy
Good Rapport with Catholic Church
Strength in Northern Mexico
Also appeals to:
Middle class professional/business
Urban
Those with higher levels of education
Religious
Little impact until the 1990’s – won a few governor’s races

21. Political Parties PRD (Democratic Revolutionary Party)
Party to PRI’s Left
Split off from the PRI party, but suffers from internal division and lack of focus (has failed to win presidency)
Wanted more reform and more social justice
Appeals to:
Young
Politically Active
From Central States
Some Education
Small Town or Urban
Drew some Middle Class/Older Voters in 2006

22. Electoral Reforms
Creation of an electoral commission to regulate campaigns and elections (1990)
All parties receive government funding and have access to the media
Increase in the number of Senate seats (from 68 to 128) (1993)
Presence of foreign electoral observers was legalized (1994)
Creation of a fully independent Federal Electoral Institute (IFE) (1996)
A limit was set on how many seats one party can hold in the Chamber of Deputies (60 percent, or 300 of the 500 seats) (1996)

23. Electoral Reforms
PR was incorporated in the Senate for 32 of 128 seats (1996)
A limit was set on party spending for campaigns
A party threshold for participation in PR was set at 2 percent (Senate and Chamber) (1996)
Priests were legally allowed to cast votes
Legislation “recommending” that parties establish a gender quota for candidate lists (1996)
2002 – Election law requires 40% of congressional ballot for each party is made up of women
Political parties are required to guarantee that women constitute at least 40 percent of candidates. This applies to both lists of candidates for the PR election, and the candidates for the constituency elections. However, parties who democratically elect their candidates are exempt from the regulations (COFIPE, Article 219). Legal sanctions for non-compliance: Electoral law Parties not complying with the articles 219 & 220 will have 48 hours to rectify their lists. After this period if they are still in non-compliance they will be publicly reprimanded from the General Council of the Federal Electoral Institute (IFE) with an extra period of 24 hours to rectify their list. Finally, if the 24 hours pass and the party is still in a state of non-compliance its electoral lists will be rejected from the IFE. Rank order/placement rules: Electoral law For the PR elections, each segment of five candidates on the list shall have two candidates of each sex, alternating men and women (COFIPE, Article 220).

25. Media Little power under PRI rule (gov’t run)
Media part of the rewards of the patron-client system
More independence in the 1980s
Access to satellite TV
Much more open today
Some issues with cartel pressure on critical investigative journalism

26. Social Cleavages Urban v. Rural North v. South Social Class
Under PRI, Mexico was mostly rural and the patron-client system controlled peasants
Today Mexico is more than 75% urban & literacy rate is about 90%
North v. South
North is more prosperous bc more involved with trade from US, more industrialized, more middle class, higher education
South has more Amerindian, lower incomes, less education
Social Class
High economic inequality, but starting to see some growth of middle class (but may be in informal economy)
Mestizo v. Amerindian

27. Social Cleavages Mestizo v. Amerindian
About 30% think of themselves as Amerindian
Amerindian more likely to live in marginalized, rural areas and live in poverty
Most of Mexico’s wealth is in the hands of the mestizos

28. Political Participation
Patron-Client System
Strong under rule of PRI
Lessened with modernization
Protests
1968 Student Protests in Tlatelolco Plaza
Gov’t responded by co-optation – accommodating protesters demands by including them in political process
1994 Zapatista Uprising in Chiapas
Chiapas = poor southern Mexican state
Amerindians upset, feeling ignored after NAFTA
President Fox attempted to incorporate Zapatistas into gov’t
Federal gov’t currently supplies electricity & water to villages Zapatistas control
2006 Protest in Oaxaca (teachers’ strike turned protest of elections and authoritarian rule) Demanded resignation of governer
Tlatelolco Plaza:
President recruited large number of student activists into his administration; increased spending on social services, put many young people to work, expanded antipoverty programs in countryside/urban slums

29. Political Participation
Voting Behavior
Before 1990s, PRI controlled elections on local, state, and national levels
Voting rates were high (patron-clientelism: political support for economic favors)
Competing parties since 1930s
Highest voting turnout in 1994 (78%) but have declined since then (around 60%)

30. Interest Groups PRI practiced state corporatism
Interest groups were divided into three sectors
Labor
Peasants
Middle class

31. Civil Society History of civil society even under PRI
Political parties are primary civil society organization in urban Mexico
They sponsor sports clubs, youth activities, and celebrations for communities
PRI’s downfall started in civil society with discontented businessmen who were not incorporated into the gov’t system
Growth of Protestant churches in recent decades demonstrates openness of civil society
Professional and affinity organizations are common and esp active in Mexico City
Unions are powerful (esp those associate with PRI)

32. History – The Porfiriato
Dictatorship under Porfirio Diaz
Came to power by military coup
Ruled for 34 years - Stablility
Authoritarianism
Cientificos (scientists)
Foreign investment and economic growth
Growing gap between rich/poor
Retired general - instituted himself as the president of Mexico with a promise he would not serve more than one term…turned in to 34 years)
Ruled with cientificos – group of young advisors that believed in bringing scientific and economic progress to Mexico –allowed foreign investment (mostly from US)
Introduction of wealth did not insure that all would benefit. Many of elite became quite wealthy, but most people in Mexico remained poor.

33. History – The Revolution 0f 1910
Reformers End Dictatorship
Revolution turned into Civil War
Caudillos (political/military strongmen) challenged one another for power
Emiliano Zapata led peasant revolt (central/southern states)
His manifesto became cornerstone of radical agrarian reform
Francisco (Pancho) Villa in the north
Combined military/warlordism
Reformers tried to end his dictatorship
Díaz promised to retire and open election for president
Díaz cancelled election due to increasing opposition, but it was too late
Díaz forced into exile and Madero elected
Madero resorted to military to suppress other revolutionaries
Madero assassinated (1913)
Revolution turned into Civil War
Rise of patron-client system under caudillos

34. History – The Constitution of 1917
Guaranteed:
agrarian reform, social security, right to organize in unions, minimum wage, eight hour workday, universal secular education, adult male suffrage
Limited the power of foreign investors
Only Mexican citizens/govt could own land or rights to other natural resources
Limited the power of Catholic Church
Anticlericalism – opposition to power of churches/clergy in politics
Women do not get the right to vote in national elections until 1958

35. History – PRI, Sexenio, & Import Substitution
Plutarco Elias Calles ( )
Establishes the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI)
Each president could have only 1 six year term - Sexenio
Lazaro Cardenas ( )
Land reform – Ejidos (collective land grants)
Nationalized the oil industry – PEMEX
Investments in public works
Import Substitution Industrialization
Employs high tariffs to protect locally produced goods from foreign competition, govt ownership of key industries, govt subsidies to domestic industries
Calles and the PRI
1929, Calles brought together many of the most powerful contenders for leadership to create a political party
Plan was to bring all caudillos under one big political party – intended to bring stability through agreement to “pass around” the power from one leader to the next as presidency changed hands
Each pres would have only 1 6yr term, other leaders would be given major positions in govt
Cardenas
Sometimes called the “Roosevelt of Mexico”
Gave voice to peasant demands from Revolution
Redistribution of land
land was taken away from big landlord and foreigners and redistributed as ejidos – collective land grants to be worked by the peasants
Ejidatario – recipient of ejido land grant in Mexico
Public works – govt built roads, provided electricity, created public services that modernized Mexico

36. History – Rapid Development
Clientelism to oil ( )
PRI and Patronage
Oil in Gulf of Mexico/fluctuating prices/debt
Crisis and Reform (1982 – 2000)
Presidents Miguel de la Madrid ( ) and Carlos Salinas ( ) introduce major reversal of the country’s development strategy, limiting the government’s involvement in the economy
From import substitution to neoliberalism
1994 – NAFTA – committed Mexico, the U.S., and Canada to elimination of trade barriers between them
Clientelism
An informal aspect of policy-making in which a power patron (for example, a traditional local boss, govt agency, or dominant party) offers resources such as land, contracts, protection, or jobs in return for the support and services (such as labor or votes) of lower status and less powerful clients
Corruption, preferential treatment, and inequality are characteristics of clientelist politics
Neoliberalism:
strategy that calls for free markets, balanced budgets, privatization, free trade, and limited govt intervention in the economy

37. History – Instability Economic Crisis of 1994
Rebellion in Chiapas (1994)
Zapatistas seized 4 towns in southern state of Chiapas
Demanded land, democracy, indigenous rights, & repeal of NAFTA
Assassination of Luis Donaldo Colosio (1994), PRI candidate for President
Globalization led to greater economic vulnerablitity
1994 – Mexico’s economy shrank by 6.2%, inflation soared, taxes rose, wages frozen

38. History – Weakening of the PRI
1997 – first time in modern Mexican history PRI lost absolute majority in Chamber of Deputies (lower house)
Dec 1, 2000 Vincent Fox became President
Why is that important?
For the first time in 71 years, the President of Mexico did not represent the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI)
Fox is from the National Action Party (PAN)
The other major party in Mexico is the PRD
Why the Change?
Mexicans questioned the right of the PRI to monopolize political power
Wanted fairer elections, more responsive public officials
Demanded the right of opposition parties to compete with the PRI on an equal basis
Said the president had too much power and the PRI was corrupt
Not ready for change in 1994 when Ernesto Zedillo (PRI) easily won, but by 2000 they had had enough

39. Recent Presidents Vicente Fox (PAN) Felipe Calderón (PAN)
Enrique Peña Nieto (PRI) – current president