1. Generalized I/O

2. Mystery of stars I/O statements took the form read *, x, y,z print *, a,b,c Such I/O is said to be List-directed or in free format user has no control over the appearance of I/O No flexibility over the I/O devices Keyboard input Display unit output * indicates no control or default format

3. Mystery resolved * stands for (*,*) In general, it will be (arg1,arg2) arg1 used to select the I/O device –* indicates default devices (keyboard and monitor) arg2 controls the I/O formatting –It is a string constant –* means default formatting

4. Files I/O through files is the most convenient Standard I/O is very painful for large data Large amount of data can be stored and retrieved with ease Output of one program can be used as input to another The programs need not be running at the same time Once created they remain - permanent memory Files are high level software abstractions of these permanent memory devices They are called as secondary memory

5. Secondary Memory permanent, slow and large volume of data Some kind of magnetic memory – no power required to retain unlike main memory different kinds - Hard Disks, Floppy Disc, CDs, Magnetic Tapes (old) Random or Sequential access details of devices abstracted from application programmers Files are the abstractions Std. I/O are also files

6. File Organization Fortran programmer's view A simple file is a linear sequence of records Each record is a meaningful piece of data Files are read or written one record at a time Each record is typically a line of data –creation of file determines type of data Files can be sequential or random access Random access files require keys

7. File Operations Opening a file writing or reading a record Rewinding a file Closing a file Valid sequence – (open (read/write/rewind)* close)* File operations translated to OS calls They can fail and graceful recovery possible

8. File Opening Simplest example is: open(unit = 23, file = "input.dat") This commands associates the file input.dat with the number 23 This number can be used for reading and writing onto the file Example:read(23, *) N write(23, *) M Unit numbers are system dependent (usually from 1 to 100) unit and file are named parameters Contrast this with positional parameters

9. Open attributes Many file attributes assume default values in the above to override these, additional parameters to be set action =READ, WRITE or READWRITE (default) status =OLD, NEW, REPLACE (default), SCRATCH, UNKNOWN ios = x, x is assigned a value at the end of the call 0 - if the operation is successful > 0 - otherwise access = "sequential" (default) or "direct"

10. Some more attributes form = "formatted" (default) or "unformatted“ –in unformatted form, data stored in some internal representation –can not be edited recl = length of each record –required for direct access files position = "rewind", "append"

11. Example integer:: ierr open(unit=23, file = "in.dat", status = "old", action = "Read“, iostat = ierr) –opening the existing file "in.dat", for read –ierr gets a value > 0 iff failure in opening

12. Another Example integer:: ierr integer:: ut = 34 open(unit= ut, file = "out.dat", status = "new", action = "write“, iostat = ierr) – creating a new file "out.dat – Status = replace would replace the file

13. One more Example open(unit= 15, status = "scratch", iostat = ierr) –no file name specified - error otherwise –default action - reading and writing temporary data –erased after the program terminates

14. Closing a file Close(close_list) Close_list –must specify the unit number –may specify other clauses the number is released and can be reused in other open statements repeated opening and closing of non scratch files possible scratch file contents lost once they are closed

15. Reading and Writing files contain sequence of records Each record is read/written using a single read or write operation So we can say that each record occupies a single line Every read statement refers to the successive records Reference to the file through the unit number example: read(unit = 16, *) x, y, z write(unit = 25, *) "test output=", a, b, c read and write one record to the appropriate file

16. Read Pointer There can be errors while reading a file There is a read pointer that indicates the next record to be read Every read moves the read pointer to the next record (in sequential access) Read Pointer

17. Read Error The read pointer may be at the end use istat clause for detecting end of file (EOF) Read(16,*, iostat = err) x, y, z If err is non zero then there is an error Use always iostat clause otherwise, program will abort

18. Other parameters For direct access files, use the argument rec = n This reads/writes the nth record Example: write(23,*,iostat = err, rec = 15) i,j –write values of i, j to the record 15 of the associated file

19. Program bubble_sort implicit none integer:: N, i, rt_end, index, temp ! N - the total number of items in the array ! i, j - array index variables integer, dimension(100):: A integer:: err,errf, werr open(unit=1, file = "in.dat", & status = "old", iostat = err) if (err/=0) then print *, "file opening error" else outer: do

20. Program Continued read (unit =1, iostat = errf, fmt = * ) N read (1, *, iostat = errf) (A(i),i=1,N) if (errf /= 0) exit rt_end = N inner: do if (rt_end A(i+1)) then temp = A(i) A(i) = A(i+1) A(i+1) = temp index = i endif enddo rt_end = index end do inner

21. Program Continued open(unit=2, file = "out.dat", & status = "old", access = "sequential", & iostat = werr) print *, (A(i),i=1,N) write (2, fmt = *) (A(i),i=1,N) end do outer endif close(unit=1) end program

22. I/O Formatting So far we have used List-Directed I/O Statements (Free format) print *, A,B,C read *, A,B Fine for small programs and small number of inputs and outputs Many data processing applications manipulate large collection of inputs and outputs –Tabulating marks and results –preparing mark sheets and reservation charts Pretty printing and Formatted input very essential Fortran has elaborate features for formatting I/O

23. Format Strings I/O formats can be specified by using format strings print fs, A, B,C read fs, C,D fs identifies a format string –a constant string –a string variable –a label that labels a format statement containing the format string Here is an example format strings print "I4, I4, I4", A, B, C This prints A, B and C in a row with each being given 4 decimal places

24. Edit Descriptor I4 is an edit descriptor Format string contains one or more edit descriptors Very many edit descriptors that help print different types of variables Alternate format strings Character(len=20):: str str = "(I4, I4, I4, I4)” write(*, str) a,b,c,d read *, 100, a, b, c, d 100 format ("I4,I4,I4,I4") print "4I4", a, b,c,d

25. I/O buffer I/O done through buffers Buffer is a temporary storage space where every line of characters is composed before doing I/O Line-oriented I/O For reading – input process builds the buffer and gives the buffer content to the program Every print statement composes the output in the output buffer completely before sending for printing on the device Buffers are read/written as per the format statement

26. Output Buffer Usually 133 characters long (line-printer output) First character is a control character –1 skip to next page –Blank single spacing (default when * is used) –0 double spacing –+ no space – overwriting The rest of the characters are printed Make sure that first character is the intended control character print (*,100) n 100 format (I3) Behaviour of print statement when n = 25 and n =125

27. Some descriptors Iw - w columns reserved for printing an integer value includes - if the number is negative 5Iw - 5 successive w columns reserved for printing/reading 5 values Iw.m - minimum m digits need to be presented If w not enough then * printed If the number is less than m digits - leading zeros added

28. Format Descriptors rFw.d r - repeat count w - number of columns for the entire number (including decimal point and -ve sign) d - number of columns to the right of the decimal point Number appears right-justified Trailing zeros if the no. of digits after decimal point is less than d rounded off if d is more if (w-d-1) is less, then asterisks printed

29. E-descriptor rEw.d Printing is done in E notation Print "E11.4", A will print -0.1234E-02 when the value of A is 1.234 * 10 ** -1 Make sure that w > = d + 7

30. A-descriptor rA or rAw if w is more then A is right justifies if w is less than only first w characters of A are printed X descriptor nX inserts n spaces in the output T descriptor Tc moves to the column number c rLw used for printing logical variables - w columns are used output will be either T or F, right justified

31. Repetition Repetition can be applied to groups of descriptors 2(I6, 2X, 2F10.2) is used to print/read two groups, each consisting of an integer (6 digits) and two floating point numbers of size 10 / operator used for breaking the line A single write statement can print on more than one line

32. Descriptor Association print fs, var_list association of format descriptor to a variable is done from left to right if for every descriptor (except print controls) there is a variable and vice versa, then association is simple if less variables then rest of the descriptors discarded if more variables then the printing starts from a fresh line for rest of the variables format strings for these variables start from right most open parenthesis that does not have repetition count

33. Example print (8, 60) j,k,l,m,n 60 format (1X,"The value” =, /, (1X, ‘New Line', 2(3X, I5))) The output is 1 16 24 (column number not printed) The value = New Line 1 2 New Line 3 4 New Line 5 where j - n has the value 1 - 5

34. Other aspects Formatted reading is similar (see the books/manuals for details) Format strings can be specified in generalized file-based I/O Include the format string in the argument fmt