1. Chapter 13 Genetics and Biotechnology
13.1 Applied Genetics

2. Selective Breeding
The process by which desired traits of certain plants and animals are selected and passed on to their future generations is called selective breeding.

3. Selective Breeding
Hybridization is crossing parent organisms with different forms of a trait to produce offspring with specific traits.
Hybrid organisms can be bred to be more disease-resistant, to produce more offspring, or to grow faster.
A disadvantage of hybridization is that it is time consuming and expensive.

4. Selective Breeding
Specific traits in breeds can be maintained by inbreeding (breeding two closely related organisms)
Clydesdale horses have been inbred to retain the desired traits: strength, agility, and obedient nature

5. Selective Breeding
Disadvantages of inbreeding is that harmful recessive traits can also be passed to future generations
German Shepherd hip dysplasia

6. Test Cross
A test cross involves breeding an organism that has the unknown genotype (PP or Pp) with one that is homozygous recessive (pp) for the desired trait

7. Chapter 13 Genetics and Biotechnology
13.2 DNA Technology

8. Genetic Engineering
Technology that involves manipulating the DNA of one organism in order to insert the DNA of another organism, called exogenous DNA.

9. Genetic Engineering
Production of human insulin by bacteria was one of the first commercially successful uses genetic engineering technology.

10. Genetic Engineering Genetically engineered organisms are used:
to study the expression of a particular gene.
to investigate cellular processes.
to study the development of a certain disease.
to select traits that
might be beneficial
to humans.

11. Genetic Engineering
Many bizarre and interesting uses for genetic engineering technologies have been reported.

12. DNA Tools
An organism’s genome is the total DNA in the nucleus of each cell.
DNA tools can be used
to manipulate DNA and to
isolate genes from the
rest of the genome.

13. DNA Tools
Restriction Enzymes are proteins used to cut DNA at specific sequences in specific ways.
Restriction enzymes are naturally present in bacteria to cut and thus restrict foreign DNA from interfering with the bacterial DNA

14. Restriction Enzymes
EcoRI specifically cuts DNA containing the sequence GAATTC.
The ends of the DNA fragments, called sticky ends, contain single-stranded DNA that is complementary.

15. Restriction Enzymes

16. Gel Electrophoresis
An electric current is used to separate DNA fragments according to the size of the fragments in a process called gel electrophoresis.
When an electric current is applied, the DNA fragments move toward the positive end of the gel.
The smaller fragments move farther faster than the larger ones.

17. Gel Electrophoresis
The unique pattern created based on the size of the DNA fragment can be compared to known DNA fragments for identification.

18. Recombinant DNA Technology
Recombinant DNA is DNA combined from two (or more) sources.

19. Recombinant DNA Technology
A gene of interest from one organism’s DNA is cut out with a restriction enzyme.
Another organism's DNA is cut open with the same restriction enzyme.
The gene that was cut out is inserted in the open DNA of the second organism.
Result is a transgenic organism
Easy to insert genes into bacteria; more difficult with other organisms

20. Recombinant DNA Technology
To make a large quantity of recombinant plasmid DNA, bacterial cells are mixed with recombinant plasmid DNA.
Some of the bacterial cells take up the recombinant plasmid DNA through a process called transformation.
Large numbers of
identical bacteria, each
containing the inserted
DNA molecules, can
be produced through a
process called cloning.

21. Recombinant DNA Technology
To understand how DNA is sequenced, scientists mix an unknown DNA fragment, DNA polymerase, and the four nucleotides—A, C, G, T in a tube.

22. Recombinant DNA Technology
Each nucleotide is tagged with a different color of fluorescent dye.
Every time a modified fluorescent-tagged nucleotide is
incorporated into the newly synthesized strand, the reaction stops.

23. Recombinant DNA Technology
The sequencing reaction is complete when the tagged DNA fragments are separated by gel electrophoresis.

24. Recombinant DNA Technology
A technique called the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) can be used to make millions of copies of a specific region of a DNA fragment.

25. Recombinant DNA Technology

26. Uses of Recombinant DNA

27. Biotechnology
Organisms genetically engineered by inserting a gene from another organism are called transgenic organisms.

28. Biotechnology
Transgenic animals are produced for biological research.

29. Biotechnology
Transgenic plants are produced to solve food or nutritional problems
Rice plants with increased iron and
vitamins could decrease malnutrition.
Genetically engineered cotton
resists insect infestation of the
bolls.

30. Biotechnology
Insulin, human growth hormone and substances that dissolve blood clots are made by transgenic bacteria.
Transgenic bacteria slow the formation of ice crystals on crops to protect them from frost, clean up oil spills, and decompose garbage.

31. Chapter 13 Genetics and Biotechnology
13.3 The Human Genome

32. The Human Genome Project
International Project to sequence the entire approximately three billion nucleotides that make up the human genome.
Began in 1990 and completed in 2003; ahead of schedule and under budget.
Found that less than 2% of all the nucleotides in the body code for all of the approximately 100,000 proteins in the body.

33. DNA Fingerprinting
Using noncoding sequences that are unique to each individual (except identical twins), scientists can identify individuals by their DNA.
Any cell of the body can be used since all cells have the same DNA (except red blood cells that do not have a nucleus).
The amount of DNA is magnifed by PCR, then cut with restriction enzymes and separated by gel electrophoresis.

34. DNA Fingerprinting Banding patterns are unique to each person
Used to identify suspects and victims in a crime, determine paternity, and identify soldiers killed in war.
Also used to determine evolutionary relationships

35. Identifying Genes
After sequencing the DNA the next step is identifying genes.
Originally thought that humans had 100,000 genes because we have 100,000 proteins (one gene-one protein)
Now know that we have 20,000-25,000 genes.
Complicated analysis that uses information from other genomes DNA sequences along with computer algorithms

36. Bioinformatics and DNA Microarrays
Bioinformatics is a field of study creates and maintains databases of biological information.
DNA microarrays are tiny microscope slides or silicon chips which contain the genes of an organism (a few genes or the whole genome).

37. The Genome and Genetics Disorders
More than 99% of an individuals DNA sequence is the same as any other individual.
Some of the differences that exist are a result of a mutation to cause a genetic disorder.
HapMap project seeks to identify common genetic variation that occur in humans.

38. The Genome and Genetics Disorders
Pharmacogenomics is the study of how genetic inheritance affects the body’s response to drugs.
Gene therapy is a technique used to correct mutated genes.
Viruses are used as a vector to insert the “good” gene into the patients cells
All gene therapy trials stopped in 2003 due to a death caused by a reaction to virus

39. Genomics and Proteomics
Studying the genome is genomics.
Genes are storage units
Proteomics is the study of the structure and function of human proteins.
Proteins are machines of the cell