1. Chapter 10 Motivation and Emotion

2. Defining Motivation, and a Model
Dynamics of behavior that initiate, sustain, direct, and terminate actions
Model of motivation
Need: Internal deficiency; causes drive
Drive: Energized motivational state (e.g., hunger, thirst); activates a response
Response: Action or series of actions designed to attain a goal
Goal: Target of motivated behavior

3. Incentive Value
Goal’s appeal beyond its ability to fill a need

4. Types of Motives
Biological motive: Innate (inborn) motives based on biological needs that must be met to survive e.g., hunger, thirst
Stimulus motive: Needs for stimulation and information; appear to be innate, but not necessary for survival
Learned motive: Based on learned needs, drives, and goals e.g., blogging

5. Homeostasis
Steady state of body equilibrium; balance

6. Circadian Rhythms
Cyclical changes in bodily functions and arousal levels that vary on a schedule approximating a 24-hour day
Pre-adaptation: Gradual matching of sleep-waking cycles to a new time schedule before an anticipated circadian rhythm change
e.g., trying to adjust to new time zone to avoid jet lag
Melatonin: Hormone produced by pineal gland in response to light (production suppressed) and dark (production increased)

7. Jet Lag Disturbed body rhythms caused by rapid travel east or west
Major time shifts (5 hours or more) can cause very slow adaptation
Direction of travel affects adaptation, and thus, severity of jet lag
Much easier to go east to west than west to east

8. Hunger Hypoglycemia: Low blood sugar
Hypothalamus: Brain structure; regulates many aspects of motivation and emotion, including hunger, thirst, and sexual behavior
Feeding system: Area in the lateral hypothalamus that, when stimulated, initiates eating
Satiety system: Area in the ventromedial hypothalamus that terminates eating

9. Paraventricular Nucleus
Located in the hypothalamus; keeps blood sugar levels steady by starting and stopping eating

10. More on Eating Behavior
Neuropeptide Y (NPY): Substance in the brain that initiates eating; works on paraventricular nucleus in hypothalamus
Glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1): Substance in brain that terminates eating
Set point: Proportion of body fat that is maintained by changes in hunger and eating; point where weight stays the same when you make no effort to gain or lose weight

11. The Final Word on Eating Behavior
Leptin: Substance released by fat cells that inhibits eating
External eating cues: Signs and signals linked with food

12. Taste Taste aversion: Active dislike for a particular food
VERY difficult to overcome
Bait shyness: Unwillingness or hesitation by animals to eat a particular food

13. Behavioral Dieting
Weight reduction based on changing exercise and eating habits and not on temporary self-starvation
Some keys
Start with a complete physical
Exercise
Be committed to weight loss

14. Behavioral Dieting (cont)
Observe yourself, keep an eating diary, and keep a chart of daily progress
Eat based on hunger, not on taste or learned habits that tell you to always clean your plate
Avoid snacks
Learn to weaken personal eating cues

15. Eating Disorders: Anorexia Nervosa
Active self-starvation or sustained loss of appetite that seems to have psychological origins
Control issues seem to be involved
Very difficult to effectively treat
Overwhelmingly affects adolescent females
About 10% are male

16. Eating Disorders: Bulimia Nervosa
Excessive eating (gorging) usually followed by self-induced vomiting and/or taking laxatives
Difficult to treat
Prozac and Zoloft approved by FDA to treat bulimia nervosa
Affects more females than males
About 25% are male

17. Causes of Anorexia Nervosa and Bulimia Nervosa
Anorexics and bulimics have exaggerated fears of becoming fat; they think they are fat when the opposite is true
Bulimics are obsessed with food and weight; anorectics with perfect control
Anorexics will often be put on a “weight-gain” diet to restore weight
Treat with cognitive-behavioral techniques

18. Thirst
Extracellular thirst: When water is lost from fluids surrounding the cells of the body
Intracellular thirst: When fluid is drawn out of cells because of increased concentration of salts and minerals outside the cell
Best satisfied by drinking water

19. Pain Avoidance An episodic drive
Occurs in distinct episodes when bodily damage takes place or is about to occur

20. Sex Drive
Sex drive: Strength of one’s motivation to engage in sexual behavior
Estrus: Changes in sex drives in animals, which creates a desire for sex; females in heat
Estrogen: A female sex hormone
Androgens: Male hormones
Non-homeostatic drive: Independent of bodily need states or physical deprivation cycles

21. Stimulus Drives
Reflect needs for information, exploration, manipulation, and sensory input
Arousal: Activation of the body and nervous system

22. Yerkes-Dodson Law
If a task is simple, it is best for arousal to be high; if it is complex, lower levels of arousal provide for the best performance
Arousal theory: Assumes people prefer to maintain ideal, or comfortable, levels of arousal
Sensation seeking: Trait of people who prefer high levels of stimulation

23. Test Anxiety
High levels of arousal and worry that seriously impair test performance

24. How to Cope With Test Anxiety
Preparation
Relaxation
Rehearsal
Restructuring thoughts

25. Learned Motives
Opponent-process theory: Strong emotions tend to be followed by an opposite emotional state; strength of both emotional states changes over time
Social motives: Acquired by growing up in a particular society or culture

26. Some Needs
Need for achievement (nAch): Desire to meet some internal standard of excellence
Need for power: Desire to have social impact or control over others

27. Abraham Maslow and Needs
Hierarchy of human heeds: Maslow’s ordering of needs based on presumed strength or potency; some needs are more powerful than others and thus will influence your behavior to a greater degree

28. Maslow’s Needs
Basic needs: First four levels of needs in Maslow’s hierarchy
Lower needs tend to be more potent than higher needs
Love and belonging
Need for esteem and self-esteem
Growth needs: Higher-level needs associated with self-actualization
Meta-needs: Needs associated with impulses for self-actualization

29. Types of Motivation
Intrinsic motivation: Motivation coming from within, not from external rewards; based on personal enjoyment of a task or activity
Extrinsic motivation: Based on obvious external rewards, obligations, or similar factors

30. Emotions
State characterized by physiological arousal and changes in facial expressions, gestures, posture, and subjective feelings
Adaptive behaviors: Aid our attempts to survive and adjust to changing conditions
Physiological changes (in emotions): Include heart rate, blood pressure, perspiration, and other involuntary responses

31. More on Emotions
Adrenaline: Hormone produced by adrenal glands that arouses the body
Emotional expression: Outward signs of what a person is feeling
Emotional feelings: Private emotional experience

32. Primary Emotions and Mood (Plutchik, 2003)
Eight primary emotions
Fear
Surprise
Sadness
Disgust
Anger
Anticipation
Joy
Trust

33. Primary Emotions and Mood (cont)
Mood: Low-intensity, long-lasting emotional state

34. Brain and Emotion
Amygdala: Part of limbic system that produces fear responses

35. Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
Neural system that connects brain with internal organs and glands
Activity’s automatic, not voluntary
Sympathetic branch: Part of ANS that activates body for emergency action
Parasympathetic branch: Part of ANS that quiets body and conserves energy
Parasympathetic rebound: Overreaction to intense emotion

36. Lie Detectors
Polygraph: Device that records changes in heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, and galvanic skin response (GSR); lie detector
GSR: Measures sweating

37. Questions Asked While Taking a Polygraph
Irrelevant questions: Neutral, nonthreatening, non-emotional questions in a polygraph test
Relevant questions: Questions to which only someone guilty should react
Control questions: Questions that almost always provoke anxiety in a polygraph (e.g. “Have you ever taken any office supplies?”)

38. Body Language (Kinesics)
Study of communication through body movement, posture, hand gestures, and facial expressions
Facial blends: Mix of two or more basic expressions

39. Three Basic Dimensions of Facial Expressions
Pleasantness–unpleasantness
Attention–rejection
Activation: Degree of arousal a person is experiencing

40. Chameleon Effect
Unconsciously imitating the postures, mannerisms, and facial expressions of others as we interact with them

41. Detecting Lies
Illustrators: Gestures people use to illustrate what they are saying
Tend to decrease when person is lying
Emblems: Gestures that have widely understood meanings within a particular culture
Tend to increase when person is lying

42. Theories of Emotion

43. James-Lange Theory
Emotional feelings follow bodily arousal and come from awareness of such arousal

44. Cannon-Bard Theory
Activity in the thalamus (in brain) causes emotional feelings and bodily arousal at the same time

45. Schachter’s Cognitive Theory
Emotions occur when physical arousal is labeled or interpreted on the basis of experience and situational cues

46. Attribution
Mental process of assigning causes to events; attributing arousal to a certain source

47. Facial Feedback Hypothesis
Sensations from facial expressions help define what emotion a person feels

48. A Modern View of Emotion
Emotional appraisal: Evaluating personal meaning of a stimulus or situation
Emotional intelligence: Ability to perceive, use, understand, and manage emotions