1. TYPOLOGY AND UNIVERSALS

2. TYPOLOGY borrowed from the field of biology and means something like ‘taxonomy’ or ‘classification’ the study of linguistic systems recurring patterns of linguistic systems UNIVERSALS typological generalizations based on these recurring patterns

3. CONTENTS Definition of typology Notions of classifications Pidgins creole mixed languages sign languages Definition of universals unrestricted: absolute and statistical implicational universals Motivations for language universals

4. WHAT IS TYPOLOGY? Linguistic Typology : concerns itself with the study of structural differences and similarities between languages the study and interpretation of linguistic or language types the study and interpretation of types of linguistic systems involves comparison of linguistic systems between languages

5. Linguistic Typology: Synchronic: A comparison of languages contemporary to each other Diachronic: A comparison of languages at various stages of their historical development

6. Grammatical functions the words in a sentence have depend on how they are ordered with respect to each other. a. John called Mary. b. Mary called John.

7. Differences in tone is an absolutely essential requirement of human language. Mandarin (Sino-Tibetan (Chinese): China) a. yī ‘cloth’ b. yí ‘to suspect’ c. yĭ ‘chair’ d. yì ‘meaning’ Copying parts of the word, a process called reduplication, is an essential requirement for a language to be able to form adverbs from adjectives. màn ‘slow’ màn-màn-de ‘slowly’

8. The order of the elements in the clause is not rigid. Modern Greek (Indo-European (Greek): Greece): a. o skilos kiniyinuse ti yata the dog chased the cat b. kiniyinuse o skilos ti yata chased the dog the cat c. o skilos ti yata kiniyinuse the dog the cat chased d. ti yata o skilos kiniyinuse the cat the dog chased e. ti yata kiniyinuse o skilos the cat chased the dog f. kiniyinuse ti yata o skilos chased the cat the dog the dog chased the cat.

9. Linguistic typology involves cross-linguistics comparisons Typology: map the patterns serve as a guide to analysis of languages. Once there is a clear and precise classification of occurring patterns, a new pattern may be evaluated with respect to existing ones. In diachronic [i.e. historical] analysis, where pieces of the puzzle (living speakers, phonetic studies of them, etc) may often be missing, typological work can be particularly useful in guiding the analysis in one direction over another. (Blevins 2007: 110)

10. CLASSIFICATIONS It is a central concept in typology Primarily based on the elements that make up the structure of languages

11. LANGUAGE CLASSIFICATIONS (RELEVANT FOR TYPOLOGY) 1. Size The languages of the world vary radically with respect to how many speakers they have. 2. Social Factors Age, gender, or level of education of the speakers, or the formality of the situation the language is used in.

12. ( CROSS - LINGUISTIC SURVEYS ) GENELOGICAL AFFILIATION 1. Location It is grouped languages by countries they are spoken in. 2. Origin Languages that descend from a common ancestor are grouped together into one language family.

13. PIDGINS, CREOLES AND MIXED LANGUAGES Pidgins, creoles and other so-called contact languages form a group of languages that does not easily fit in any genealogical classification. Pidgins, creoles and other kinds of contact languages have more than one parent.

14. PIDGIN a language that emerges when groups of people are in close contact and need to communicate but have no language in common. (slaves, workers.) CREOLE typically a pidgin or jargon that has become the native language of a community. MIXED LANGUAGE A different type of contact language. Emerged in situations of community bilingualism. SIGN LANGUAGES languages where the communication is achieved by using the hands, upper body and face to produce signs.

15. WHAT ARE UNIVERSALS? Language universals: refer to properties that hold for all or most known human languages. refer to quantitative statements that are based on cross-linguistic studies. Typological universals are empirically established generalizations that describe distributional patterns for particular grammatical phenomena across languages. (These distributional patterns are regarded as universals to the extent that they are found in all languages or in a statistically significant number of languages. (Cristofaro 2010:227)

16. U NRESTRICTED UNIVERSALS : ABSOLUTE AND STATISTICAL Absolute universals: universals that hold for every single human language, without exceptions, the assumption is that the feature must be present in any and all languages. a. All spoken languages have vowels b. All languages have ways of forming questions

17. Statistical (or probabilistic) universals hold for most, but not all, languages; the assumption is that the feature is likely to be present in a language. In most languages the singular is the base form and the plural is the overtly marked form (but not Aari (Afro-Asiatic (South Omotic): Ethiopia), which has no plural but an overtly marked singulative; (Hayward 1990:444) Most spoken languages employ a rising intonation for yes-no questions (but not Hawai‘i Creole English, where yes-no questions have falling intonation; based on own fieldwork)

18. IMPLICATIONAL UNIVERSALS (R ESTRICTED, ALSO TYPOLOGICAL ) State that if a language has property A, then it also has property B, but not necessarily the other way round. May also be absolute or statistical. a. If a language has the phoneme /t/ then it also has the phoneme /k/ (Pericliev 2008:206) b. If a language has reflexives for the (first and second person, it will also have reflexives for the third person (Comrie 1989:19)

19. Implicational universals can be either one-way or two-way predictions. A bidirectional implicational universal: is a prediction that works two ways. What this means is that we can hypothesize that if a language has X, then it also has Y, and conversely, if it has Y, then it also has X. A unidirectional implicational universal is a hypothesis that only holds one way. If in a language the relative clause precedes the noun, then it is usually has an object-verb word order while if a language has verb object word order, then the relative clause usually follows the noun (Dryer 2011)

20. ON MOTIVATIONS FOR LANGUAGE UNIVERSALS Language internal explanations are based on the structural system of the language in question. An example of a language internal explanation is the notion of iconicity, with the principle that the formal expressions in a language express semantic notions. Language external explanations are based on factors outside the structural system of the language. Examples of external explanations for language universals are the roles of discourse, processing and economy.

21. Discourse: refers to a connected series of utterances by speakers. Economy: refers to two processes: frequently used elements tend to get reduced, or, put differently, the length of a word correlates with how often it is used. elements that are highly predictable tend to get eliminated. Processing: refers to the cognitive effort it takes to comprehend linguistic structures.

22. CONCLUSION Typology differences and similarities between linguistic systems patterns of distributions of linguistic structures Comparison of linguistic types may be either synchronic or diachronic. Classification is a central concept in linguistic typology. Due to their socio-historical background, pidgins, creoles and mixed languages are not easily classified genealogically. Universals are typological generalizations based on cross-linguistic surveys Absolute universals hypothesize that a linguistic phenomenon is found (or is lacking) in all human languages. Statistical universals hypothesize that a linguistic phenomenon is found (or lacking) in most human languages. Implicational universals are hypotheses of the “if X, then Y” kind and can be absolute or statistical. Implicational universals can be bidirectional Or they can be unidirectional. There may be various motivations for language universals, both internal, such as iconicity, and external, such as cognitive processing, economy or coherent discourse.