Amateur Radio FCC License Class

Amateur Radio FCC License Class
A One-Day Technician-Class License Course Based on the Question Pool Course Development - Saratoga Amateur Radio Association Instructors – Licensed Radio Amateurs from Campbell, Los Gatos and Saratoga

Course Details This class is designed to prepare you to pass the FCC exam for your Technician Class Amateur Radio License The good news: The exam is 35 multiple choice question and you only need to answer 26 of them (75%) correctly The bad news: The 35 questions on the exam are selected from a pool of 428 so we’ll probably be here all day! Relax: The exam covers 17 different subject areas so you’ll likely find a few that make sense We use the ARRL Ham Radio License Manual Third Edition for guidance

Course Details We have need to move along quickly, so stay tuned
Two 10-min “stretch” breaks, morning and afternoon 20-min lunch break, mid-day Take restroom breaks on your own as needed Open Q&A during the breaks – catch any one of us Your instructors will present material by section Peter Hertan, KJ6HSK Kelly Johnson, N6KJ Yin Shih, N9YS Barton Smith, N6HDN Don Steinbach, AE6PM

What is Amateur Radio? Amateur (or Ham) Radio is a personal radio service authorized by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC). To encourage the advancement of the art and science of radio. To promote the development of an emergency communication capability to assist communities when needed. To develop a pool of trained radio operators. To promote international good will by connecting private citizens in countries around the globe. Governed by Part 97 rules from Title 47 of the Code of Federal Regulations

[This is one of the questions in the pool]
Which agency regulates and enforces the rules for the Amateur Radio Service in the United States? A. FEMA B. The ITU C. The FCC D. Homeland Security [This is one of the questions in the pool] T1A02 (C)

What is the FCC Part 97 definition of an amateur station?
A. A station in an Amateur Radio Service consisting of the apparatus necessary for carrying on radio communications B. A building where Amateur Radio receivers, transmitters, and RF power amplifiers are installed C. Any radio station operated by a non-professional D. Any radio station for hobby use T1A10 (A)

Course Topics Amateur Radio Stations Basic Electricity & Math
Radio Waves & Spectrum Modulation & Modes Feedlines & SWR Antennas Propagation RFI & Solutions Electronic Components Basic Circuits Radio Functions & Repeaters Operating Basics Emergency Communications Special Comm Modes Amateur Licensing & Privileges Amateur Responsibilities Safety

Amateur Radio Stations

Basic Station Elements
Station Equipment Receiver Transmitter Antenna Power Supply Accessory Station Equipment Go over with the students the basic outline of the material to be presented during this lesson. This lesson is deceptively simple because there is a lot of preparation required to make this lesson effective. You should try to set up an operative station to give some demonstration contact. Use some care that you don’t set up a station that will intimidate the students on the first day, try to set up a station that would be typical of the type of station that they might set up in the beginning of their ham radio careers. Don’t spend a lot of time at this point demonstrating all the exotic modes available to the students, there will be plenty of time to do that later in the course. I would suggest a basic two meter set up and give demonstration contacts on repeaters and simplex. Then have a simple HF station and make one or two phone and one CW contact. Some advice on contact…don’t depend on a CQ being answered, it may or may not happen. I would suggest you have a few “planted” contacts from your club. These planted contacts are standing by on the frequency ready to step in and make a contact just in case your CQ goes unanswered. Try to get planted contact operators who are good at drawing out conversations on the radio. New operators are intimidated by radio and sometimes need to be prodded to say more than yes or no answers to questions.

The Basic Radio Station

Transmitter Transmitting (sending a signal):
Information (voice, data, video, commands, etc.) is converted to electronic form. The information in electronic form is attached or embedded on a radio wave (a carrier). The radio wave is sent out from the station antenna into space.

Receiver Receiving a signal:
The radio wave (carrier) with the information is intercepted by the receiving station antenna. The receiver extracts the information from the carrier wave. The information is then presented to the user in a format that can be understood (sound, picture, words on a computer screen, response to a command).

Antenna The antenna connects your station to the world.
Facilitates the radiation of your signal into space (electromagnetic radiation) when transmitting. Intercepts someone else’s signal when receiving. Most times the transmitting and receiving antenna are the same antenna, but they don’t need to be. Connected to your station by a connecting wire or cable called a feed line.

Power Supply The radio station needs some sort of power to operate.
Battery, or household ac converted to proper voltage or alternative sources such as a generator Most modern radios operate on “12 volts” direct current (dc) externally or internally. 13.8 volts dc is the actual voltage. This is the charging voltage for motorized vehicles. Household electrical power is 120 volts ac. Power supplies convert 120 volts ac to volts dc.

The Transceiver Most modern transmitters and receivers are combined in one unit – called a transceiver. Saves space Cost less Many common electronic circuits are shared within the transceiver.

Basic Station Accessories
Human interface accessories: Microphones Speakers Earphones Computer Morse code key TV camera Etc. Station performance accessories: Antenna tuner SWR meter (antenna match checker) Amplifier Antenna rotator (turning antenna) Filters Etc.

Handheld Transceivers
Single, dual and multi-band versions (with increasing cost and complexity). Some have expanded receiver coverage (wide-band receive). Very portable and self-contained. Internal microphone and speaker. Rubber duck antenna. Battery powered. Also called HTs

Repeaters Repeaters are unattended stations located at high places that receive and then retransmit your signal – simultaneously. Dramatically improves range, particularily from HTs. The basic components of a repeater are the same as your station: receiver, transmitter, antenna and power supply. A duplexer replaces the antenna switch

Repeater Block Diagram

Basic Electricity

Basic Characteristics of Electricity
There are three characteristics to electricity: Voltage (aka Electromotive Force) Current Resistance All three must be present for electrons to flow.

Ohm’s Law E is voltage I is current R is resistance R = E/I I = E/R
Units - volts I is current Units - amperes R is resistance Units - ohms R = E/I I = E/R E = I x R

Two Basic Kinds of Current
When current flows in only one direction, it is called direct current (dc). Batteries are a common source of dc. Most electronic devices are powered by dc. When current flows alternatively in one direction then in the opposite direction, it is called alternating current (ac). Your household current is ac. Discuss the two different kinds of current and what they might be used for. Point out to the students that their household AC current is frequently converted into DC to run many household appliances. That conversion is done inside the appliance or inside an external converter like a wal-wart. Explain why house current is AC (easier to transmit the electricity from the power plant to the home).

Electrical current is measured in which of the following units?
A. Volts B. Watts C. Ohms D. Amperes T5A01 (D)

What is the name for the flow of electrons in an electric circuit?
A. Voltage B. Resistance C. Capacitance D. Current T5A03 (D)

What is the name of a current that flows only in one direction?
A. An alternating current B. A direct current C. A normal current D. A smooth current T5A04 (B)

What is the name of a current that reverses direction on a regular basis?
A. An alternating current B. A direct current C. A circular current D. A vertical current T5A09 (A)

What term describes the number of times per second that an alternating current reverses direction?
A. Pulse rate B. Speed C. Wavelength D. Frequency T5A12 (D)

What is the electrical term for the electromotive force (EMF) that causes electron flow?
A. Voltage B. Ampere-hours C. Capacitance D. Inductance T5A05 (A)

What is the basic unit of electromotive force?
A. The volt B. The watt C. The ampere D. The ohm T5A11 (A)

Which of the following is a good electrical conductor?
A. Glass B. Wood C. Copper D. Rubber T5A07 (C)

Which of the following is a good electrical insulator?
A. Copper B. Glass C. Aluminum D. Mercury T5A08 (B)

What electrical component is used to oppose the flow of current in a DC circuit?
A. Inductor B. Resistor C. Voltmeter D. Transformer T6A01 (B)

What type of component is often used as an adjustable volume control?
A. Fixed resistor B. Power resistor C. Potentiometer D. Transformer T6A02 (C)

What electrical parameter is controlled by a potentiometer?
A. Inductance B. Resistance C. Capacitance D. Field strength T6A03 (B)

What formula is used to calculate current in a circuit?
A. Current (I) equals voltage (E) multiplied by resistance (R) B. Current (I) equals voltage (E) divided by resistance (R) C. Current (I) equals voltage (E) added to resistance (R) D. Current (I) equals voltage (E) minus resistance (R) T5D01 (B)

What formula is used to calculate voltage in a circuit?
A. Voltage (E) equals current (I) multiplied by resistance (R) B. Voltage (E) equals current (I) divided by resistance (R) C. Voltage (E) equals current (I) added to resistance (R) D. Voltage (E) equals current (I) minus resistance (R) T5D02 (A)

What formula is used to calculate resistance in a circuit?
A. Resistance (R) equals voltage (E) multiplied by current (I) B. Resistance (R) equals voltage (E) divided by current (I) C. Resistance (R) equals voltage (E) added to current (I) D. Resistance (R) equals voltage (E) minus current (I) T5D03 (B)

What is the resistance of a circuit when a current of 3 amperes flows through a resistor connected to 90 volts? A. 3 ohms B. 30 ohms C. 93 ohms D. 270 ohms T5D04 (B)

What is the resistance in a circuit where the applied voltage is 12 volts and the current flow is 1.5 amperes? A. 18 ohms B ohms C. 8 ohms D ohms T5D05 (C)

What is the resistance of a circuit that draws 4 amperes from a 12-volt source?
A. 3 ohms B. 16 ohms C. 48 ohms D. 8 Ohms T5D06 (A)

What is the current flow in a circuit with an applied voltage of 120 volts and a resistance of 80 ohms? A amperes B. 200 amperes C amperes D. 1.5 amperes T5D07 (D)

What is the current flowing through a 100-ohm resistor connected across 200 volts?
A. 20,000 amperes B. 0.5 amperes C. 2 amperes D. 100 amperes T5D08 (C)

What is the current flowing through a 24-ohm resistor connected across 240 volts?
A. 24,000 amperes B. 0.1 amperes C. 10 amperes D. 216 amperes T5D09 (C)

What is the voltage across a 2-ohm resistor if a current of 0
What is the voltage across a 2-ohm resistor if a current of 0.5 amperes flows through it? A. 1 volt B volts C. 2.5 volts D. 1.5 volts T5D10 (A)

What is the voltage across a 10-ohm resistor if a current of 1 ampere flows through it?
A. 1 volt B. 10 volts C. 11 volts D. 9 volts T5D11 (B)

What is the voltage across a 10-ohm resistor if a current of 2 amperes flows through it?
A. 8 volts B. 0.2 volts C. 12 volts D. 20 volts T5D12 (D)

Power Formula Electrical power, measured in watts, is the rate at which electrical energy is consumed or produced. P = E x I E = P/I I = P/E Go through some simple problems using the power formula. Again use test question examples for homework.

Electrical Power is measured in which of the following units?
A. Volts B. Watts C. Ohms D. Amperes T5A02 (B)

Which term describes the rate at which electrical energy is used?
A. Resistance B. Current C. Power D. Voltage T5A10 (C)

What is the formula used to calculate electrical power in a DC circuit?
A. Power (P) equals voltage (E) multiplied by current (I) B. Power (P) equals voltage (E) divided by current (I) C. Power (P) equals voltage (E) minus current (I) D. Power (P) equals voltage (E) plus current (I) T5C08 (A)

How much power is being used in a circuit when the applied voltage is 13.8 volts DC and the current is 10 amperes? A. 138 watts B. 0.7 watts C watts D. 3.8 watts T5C09 (A)

How much power is being used in a circuit when the applied voltage is 12 volts DC and the current is 2.5 amperes? A. 4.8 watts B. 30 watts C watts D watts T5C10 (B)

How many amperes are flowing in a circuit when the applied voltage is 12 volts DC and the load is 120 watts? A. 0.1 amperes B. 10 amperes C. 12 amperes D. 132 amperes T5C11 (B)

What is meant by the term impedance?
A. It is a measure of the opposition to AC current flow in a circuit B. It is the inverse of resistance C. It is a measure of the Q or Quality Factor of a component D. It is a measure of the power handling capability of a component T5C12 (A)

What are the units of impedance?
A. Volts B. Amperes C. Coulombs D. Ohms T5C13 (D)

Dealing with Very Big and Very Small Numeric Values
In electronics we deal with incredibly large and incredibly small numbers. The international metric system allows for short hand for dealing with the range of values. Give some examples of some of the very large and very small numbers we deal with. For instance voltage in household current and voltages received on an antenna.

Metric Units Extensive table to right Most useful prefixes are:
Mega = 1,000,000 Kilo = 1,000 Milli = 1/1,000 Micro = 1/1,000,000 Pico = 1/1,000,000,000,000 (one trillionth)

How many milliamperes is 1.5 amperes?
A. 15 milliamperes B. 150 milliamperes C milliamperes D. 15,000 milliamperes T5B01 (C)

What is another way to specify the frequency of a radio signal that is oscillating at 1,500,000 Hertz? A kHz B MHz C. 15 GHz D. 150 kHz T5B02 (A)

Which of the following frequencies is equal to 28,400 kHz?
A MHz B MHz C MHz D kHz T5B12 (A)

If a frequency readout shows a reading of 2425 MHz, what frequency is that in GHz?
A GHz B GHz C GHz D GHz T5B13 (C)

How many volts are equal to one kilovolt?
A. one one-thousandth of a volt B. one hundred volts C. one thousand volts D. one million volts T5B03 (C)

How many volts are equal to one microvolt?
A. one one-millionth of a volt B. one million volts C. one thousand kilovolts D. one one-thousandth of a volt T5B04 (A)

Which of the following is equivalent to 500 milliwatts?
A watts B. 0.5 watts C. 5 watts D. 50 watts T5B05 (B)

If an ammeter calibrated in amperes is used to measure a 3000-milliampere current, what reading would it show? A amperes B. 0.3 amperes C. 3 amperes D. 3,000,000 amperes T5B06 (C)

If a frequency readout calibrated in megahertz shows a reading of 3
If a frequency readout calibrated in megahertz shows a reading of MHz, what would it show if it were calibrated in kilohertz? A kHz B kHz C kHz D. 3,525,000 kHz T5B07 (C)

How many microfarads are 1,000,000 picofarads?
A microfarads B. 1 microfarad C microfarads D. 1,000,000,000 microfarads T5B08 (B)

Decibels The decibel (dB) is used to compare two power levels using a logarithmic scale Calculating in decibels (dB) is the same as using logarithms Adding/subtracting logarithms of numbers is equivalent to multiplying or dividing by the numbers A ratio of 2:1 is a difference of 3 dB A ratio of 10:1 is a difference of 10 dB Examples: 3 dB + 3 dB = 6dB is the same as 2 x 2 or 4:1 3 dB + 10 dB = 13 dB is the same as 2 x 10 or 20:1 10 dB + 10 dB + 10 dB = 30 dB is the same as 10 x 10 x 10 or 1000:1 Point out the most likely units the students will have to deal with on the exam like milli, micro, Kilo, Mega, etc. Using examples from test questions give the students some homework to convert between units. Remembering that Ohm’s Law, the basic units for voltage, current, and resistance are required.

What is the approximate amount of change, measured in decibels (dB), of a power increase from 5 watts to 10 watts? A. 2 dB B. 3 dB C. 5 dB D. 10 dB T5B09 (B)

What is the approximate amount of change, measured in decibels (dB), of a power decrease from 12 watts to 3 watts? A. -1 dB B. -3 dB C. -6 dB D. -9 dB T5B10 (C)

What is the approximate amount of change, measured in decibels (dB), of a power increase from 20 watts to 200 watts? A. 10 dB B. 12 dB C. 18 dB D. 28 dB T5B11 (A)

Radio Waves & Spectrum

Wave Vocabulary Before we study radio waves, we need to learn some wave vocabulary. Amplitude Frequency Period Wavelength Harmonics Spend some time with live demonstration to make sure the students are really familiar with the concepts and vocabulary of waves. These demonstrations could include using audio frequency generator connected to a speaker and oscilloscope to allow students to hear a audio sine wave and see the wave. This will allow you to point out the differenced between amplitude and frequency, the relationship between frequency and wavelength, the relationship between frequency and period.

Wavelength The distance a radio wave travels during one cycle.
One complete change between magnetic and electric fields. Wavelength is related to frequency Speed of light / frequency Speed of light is 300,000,000 meters/sec Wavelength (in meters) = 300 / Frequency (in MHz) This is the time to talk about the mathematical relationship between frequency and wavelength. Go over a few practice problems using examples of test questions. Give some problems for homework that are the test questions.

Radio Frequency (RF) Spectrum
Point out on the diagram where familiar signals are located like AM/FM commercial radio, police and fire channels, TV, satellite TV. Point out how each segment acts differently from adjacent segments. Don’t be afraid to tell them that it isn’t that simple, that the lines between segments sometimes are a little fuzzy, that is part of the fun of radio. Technicians have some privileges in HF and all privileges in VHF, UHF, SHF and EHF (in relation to higher amateur license classes) This extensive range of privileges is why the test is technical, not just rules and regulations to use repeaters

Finding Where You are on the Radio Dial
There are two ways to tell someone where to meet you on the radio dial (spectrum). Band Frequency (radio dial) Band vs radio dial (most useful examples) 6M Band = MHz Using the formula: 300 / 50 (MHz) = 6M! 2M Band = MHz 1.25M Band = MHz 70 cm Band = MHz (usually MHz) And others both lower and higher

Another Reason to Understand Frequency and Wavelength
For the station antenna to efficiently send the radio wave out into space, the antenna must be designed for the specific operating frequency. The antenna length needs to closely match the wavelength of the frequency to be used. Any mismatch between antenna length and frequency wavelength will result in radio frequency energy being reflected back to the transmitter not radiating into space. This reflected energy can damage the transmitter Note that this statement is a generalization and there are a million exceptions, just go with it for instructional purposes and point out that in the beginning, many over generalizations must be made to facilitate understanding. Once the student understands the basic concepts, then the true complexity of radio and in particular antenna theory can be explored.

What does the abbreviation “RF” refer to?
A. Radio frequency signals of all types B. The resonant frequency of a tuned circuit C. The real frequency transmitted as opposed to the apparent frequency D. Reflective force in antenna transmission lines T5C06 (A)

What is a usual name for electromagnetic waves that travel through space?
A. Gravity waves B. Sound waves C. Radio waves D. Pressure waves T5C07 (C)

What is the name for the distance a radio wave travels during one complete cycle?
A. Wave speed B. Waveform C. Wavelength D. Wave spread T3B01 (C)

What property of a radio wave is used to describe its polarization?
A. The orientation of the electric field B. The orientation of the magnetic field C. The ratio of the energy in the magnetic field to the energy in the electric field D. The ratio of the velocity to the wavelength T3B02 (A)

What is the unit of frequency?
A. Hertz B. Henry C. Farad D. Tesla T5C05 (A)

What are the two components of a radio wave?
A. AC and DC B. Voltage and current C. Electric and magnetic fields D. Ionizing and non-ionizing radiation T3B03 (C)

How fast does a radio wave travel through free space?
A. At the speed of light B. At the speed of sound C. Its speed is inversely proportional to its wavelength D. Its speed increases as the frequency increases T3B04 (A)

What is the approximate velocity of a radio wave as it travels through free space?
A kilometers per second B. 300,000,000 meters per second C. 300,000 miles per hour D. 186,000 miles per hour T3B11 (B)

How does the wavelength of a radio wave relate to its frequency?
A. The wavelength gets longer as the frequency increases B. The wavelength gets shorter as the frequency increases C. There is no relationship between wavelength and frequency D. The wavelength depends on the bandwidth of the signal T3B05 (B)

What is the formula for converting frequency to approximate wavelength in meters?
A. Wavelength in meters equals frequency in hertz multiplied by 300 B. Wavelength in meters equals frequency in hertz divided by 300 C. Wavelength in meters equals frequency in megahertz divided by 300 D. Wavelength in meters equals 300 divided by frequency in megahertz T3B06 (D)

What property of radio waves is often used to identify the different frequency bands?
A. The approximate wavelength B. The magnetic intensity of waves C. The time it takes for waves to travel one mile D. The voltage standing wave ratio of waves T3B07 (A)

What are the frequency limits of the VHF spectrum?
A. 30 to 300 kHz B. 30 to 300 MHz C. 300 to 3000 kHz D. 300 to 3000 MHz T3B08 (B)

What are the frequency limits of the UHF spectrum?
A. 30 to 300 kHz B. 30 to 300 MHz C. 300 to 3000 kHz D. 300 to 3000 MHz T3B09 (D)

What frequency range is referred to as HF?
A. 300 to 3000 MHz B. 30 to 300 MHz C. 3 to 30 MHz D. 300 to 3000 kHz T3B10 (C)

Modulation & Modes

Adding Information - Modulation
In order for a radio wave to be useful, it has to carry information When we imprint some information on the radio wave, we modulate the wave. Turn the wave on and off Voice AM and FM Data or Video (Video is most complex) Different modulation techniques are called modes. Each mode uses up a different amount of “bandwidth” This changes the separation needed between stations Full NTSC Video requires 6 MHz between stations You now need to make the jump from the discussion of radio spectrum and antenna resonance to the concept of modulation. The important concept here is understanding that modulation is imprinting information on the carrier radio wave. There are different ways to do this imprinting, those different ways are called modes.

Morse Code – On and Off Morse Code was the first modulation mode
Also called CW (Continuous Wave) Somewhat misleading as the wave is interrupted! CW has narrow bandwidth Hz

Amplitude Modulation (AM)
In AM, the amplitude of the carrier wave is modified to be proportional to the waveform of the information (voice). This is how the “AM” band got its name The ARRL modulation board is an excellent resource that can be used to demonstrate the concept of modulation. This board uses amplitude modulation and demodulation circuits along with an oscilloscope to visually depict what happens during modulation.

Characteristics of Voice AM
When modulated, AM signals actually consist of three components: Carrier Lower sideband Upper sideband Natural voice bandwidth is from 300 Hz to 3 KHz. AM bandwidth is twice the voice bandwidth (or 6 KHz) due to the mirror image sidebands.

Single Sideband Modulation (SSB)
AM is made up of identical mirror image sidebands: We can improve efficiency of transmission by transmitting only one sideband and then reconstruct the missing sideband at the receiver. This only requires a 3KHz bandwidth

Frequency Modulation (FM)
Instead of varying amplitude, if we vary the frequency in step with the information waveform – FM is produced. FM signals are much more resistant to the effects of noise but require more bandwidth. FM bandwidth (for voice) is between 5 and 15 kHz. This is how the “FM” band got its name Discuss the concept of deviation, the amount of frequency change from the center frequency determines the volume of the transmitted information (percent modulation). Discuss what happens if you over deviate. Also discuss that FM can also be produced by varying the phase of the carrier, but this it is hard to distinguish between PM and FM so it isn’t particularly important for the new ham. Here is a good place to talk about the advantages and disadvantages of the different forms of modulation.

Which of the following is a form of amplitude modulation?
A. Spread-spectrum B. Packet radio C. Single sideband D. Phase shift keying T8A01 (C)

What type of modulation is most commonly used for VHF packet radio transmissions?
A. FM B. SSB C. AM D. Spread Spectrum T8A02 (A)

Which type of voice mode is most often used for long-distance (weak signal) contacts on the VHF and UHF bands? A. FM B. DRM C. SSB D. PM T8A03 (C)

Which type of modulation is most commonly used for VHF and UHF voice repeaters?
A. AM B. SSB C. PSK D. FM T8A04 (D)

Which of the following types of emission has the narrowest bandwidth?
A. FM voice B. SSB voice C. CW D. Slow-scan TV T8A05 (C)

Which sideband is normally used for 10 meter HF, VHF and UHF single-sideband communications?
A. Upper sideband B. Lower sideband C. Suppressed sideband D. Inverted sideband T8A06 (A)

A. SSB signals are easier to tune
What is the primary advantage of single sideband over FM for voice transmissions? A. SSB signals are easier to tune B. SSB signals are less susceptible to interference C. SSB signals have narrower bandwidth D. All of these choices are correct T8A07 (C)

What is the approximate bandwidth of a single-sideband voice signal?
A. 1 kHz B. 3 kHz C. 6 kHz D. 15 kHz T8A08 (B)

What is the approximate bandwidth of a VHF repeater FM phone signal?
A. Less than 500 Hz B. About 150 kHz C. Between 10 and 15 kHz D. Between 50 and 125 kHz T8A09 (C)

What is the typical bandwidth of analog fast-scan TV transmissions on the 70 cm band?
A. More than 10 MHz B. About 6 MHz C. About 3 MHz D. About 1 MHz T8A10 (B)

What is the approximate maximum bandwidth required to transmit a CW signal?
A. 2.4 kHz B. 150 Hz C Hz D. 15 kHz T8A11 (B)

What determines the amount of deviation of an FM (as opposed to PM) signal?
A. Both the frequency and amplitude of the modulating signal B. The frequency of the modulating signal C. The amplitude of the modulating signal D. The relative phase of the modulating signal and the carrier T2B05 (C)

What happens when the deviation of an FM transmitter is increased?
A. Its signal occupies more bandwidth B. Its output power increases C. Its output power and bandwidth increases D. Asymmetric modulation occurs T2B06 (A)

Feedlines & SWR

Feed Line types The purpose of the feed line is to get energy from your station to the antenna. Basic feed line types. Coaxial cable (coax). Open-wire or ladder line (less common). Each has a characteristic impedance, each has its unique application. It would be very helpful to have physical examples of the two basic kinds of feed line.

Coax Most common feed line. Easy to use.
Matches impedance of modern radio equipment (50 ohms). Some loss of signal depending on coax quality (cost). Discuss why coax is so common and emphasize how it can be abused and still work well. Coax connectors terminate each end of a coax feedline PL-259 is used for HF and VHF Type N is used for UHF HTs use smaller connectors PL-259 Type-N

Standing Wave Ratio (SWR)
If the antenna and feed line impedances are not perfectly matched, some RF energy is not radiated into space and is returned (reflected) back to the source. Something has to happen to this reflected energy – generally converted into heat or unwanted radio energy (bad). A SWR meter is inserted in the feed line and indicates the mismatch that exists at that point.

Nothing is Perfect Although the goal is to get 100% of your radio energy radiated into space, that is virtually impossible. What is an acceptable level of loss (reflected power or SWR?) 1:1 is perfect. 2:1 should be the max you should accept (as a general rule). Modern radios will start lowering transmitter output power automatically when SWR is above 2:1. 3:1 is when you need to do something to reduce SWR. A “dummy load” is a device that provides close to 1:1 SWR and converts RF into heat (doesn’t radiate) You need to give your students the benefit of your experience on how to use the SWR meter, how you might make adjustments in the antennas to improve the SWR, and also give them some guideline as to what is acceptable and what is not. These are some of my guidelines for dealing with SWR, of course there are exceptions to every rule and there certainly are exceptions to these guidelines.

Antenna Tuner One way to make antenna matching adjustments is to use an antenna tuner. Antenna tuners are impedance transformers (they actually do not tune the antenna). When used appropriately they are effective. When used inappropriately all they do is make a bad antenna look good to the transmitter…the antenna is still bad. The desired matching impedance for most ham radio equipment (radios, coax, antennas) is 50 ohms Spend some time with the students clarifying what actually is happening when they use an antenna tuner. There are many misconceptions about antenna tuners. Basically, the antenna tuner is an impedance transformer that makes the impedance seen by the transmitter look like 50 Ohms. An antenna tuner can make a bad antenna look like a good antenna, but the antenna is still bad. Antenna tuners are truly effective when you are truly compensating between impedance miss-matches (an effective antenna at one impedance that needs to transformed to the impedance of the transmitter).

Which of the following is a common use of coaxial cable?
A. Carrying dc power from a vehicle battery to a mobile radio B. Carrying RF signals between a radio and antenna C. Securing masts, tubing, and other cylindrical objects on towers D. Connecting data signals from a TNC to a computer T7C12 (B)

What is the primary purpose of a dummy load?
A. To prevent the radiation of signals when making tests B. To prevent over-modulation of your transmitter C. To improve the radiation from your antenna D. To improve the signal to noise ratio of your receiver T7C01 (A)

What does a dummy load consist of?
A. A high-gain amplifier and a TR switch B. A non-inductive resistor and a heat sink C. A low voltage power supply and a DC relay D. A 50 ohm reactance used to terminate a transmission line T7C13 (B)

What, in general terms, is standing wave ratio (SWR)?
A. A measure of how well a load is matched to a transmitter B. The ratio of high to low impedance in a feed line C. The transmitter efficiency ratio D. An indication of the quality of your station ground connection T7C03 (A)

What reading on a SWR meter indicates a perfect impedance match between the antenna and the feed line? A. 2 to 1 B. 1 to 3 C. 1 to 1 D. 10 to 1 T7C04 (C)

What is the approximate SWR value above which the protection circuits in most solid-state transmitters begin to reduce transmitter power? A. 2 to 1 B. 1 to 2 C. 6 to 1 D. 10 to 1 T7C05 (A)

What does an SWR reading of 4:1 indicate?
A. Loss of -4 dB B. Good impedance match C. Gain of +4 dB D. Impedance mismatch T7C06 (D)

What happens to the power lost in a feed line?
A. It increases the SWR B. It comes back into your transmitter and could cause damage C. It is converted into heat D. It can cause distortion of your signal T7C07 (C)

What instrument other than an SWR meter could you use to determine if a feedline and antenna are properly matched? A. Voltmeter B. Ohmmeter C. Iambic pentameter D. Directional wattmeter T7C08 (D)

Why is it important to have a low SWR in an antenna system that uses coaxial cable feedline?
A. To reduce television interference B. To allow the efficient transfer of power and reduce losses C. To prolong antenna life D. All of these choices are correct T9B01 (B)

What is the impedance of the most commonly used coaxial cable in typical amateur radio installations? A. 8 ohms B. 50 ohms C. 600 ohms D. 12 ohms T9B02 (B)

Why is coaxial cable used more often than any other feedline for amateur radio antenna systems?
A. It is easy to use and requires few special installation considerations B. It has less loss than any other type of feedline C. It can handle more power than any other type of feedline D. It is less expensive than any other types of feedline T9B03 (A)

What does an antenna tuner do?
A. It matches the antenna system impedance to the transceiver's output impedance B. It helps a receiver automatically tune in weak stations C. It allows an antenna to be used on both transmit and receive D. It automatically selects the proper antenna for the frequency band being used T9B04 (A)

What generally happens as the frequency of a signal passing through coaxial cable is increased?
A. The apparent SWR increases B. The reflected power increases C. The characteristic impedance increases D. The loss increases T9B05 (D)

Which of the following connectors is most suitable for frequencies above 400 MHz?
A. A UHF (PL-259/SO-239) connector B. A Type N connector C. An RS-213 connector D. A DB-25 connector T9B06 (B)

Which of the following is true of PL-259 type coax connectors?
A. They are preferred for microwave operation B. They are water tight C. The are commonly used at HF frequencies D. They are a bayonet type connector T9B07 (C)

Why should coax connectors exposed to the weather be sealed against water intrusion?
A. To prevent an increase in feedline loss B. To prevent interference to telephones C. To keep the jacket from becoming loose D. All of these choices are correct T9B08 (A)

What might cause erratic changes in SWR readings?
A. The transmitter is being modulated B. A loose connection in an antenna or a feedline C. The transmitter is being over-modulated D. Interference from other stations is distorting your signal T9B09 (B)

What electrical difference exists between the smaller RG-58 and larger RG-8 coaxial cables?
A. There is no significant difference between the two types B. RG-58 cable has less loss at a given frequency C. RG-8 cable has less loss at a given frequency D. RG-58 cable can handle higher power levels T9B10 (C)

Which of the following types of feedline has the lowest loss at VHF and UHF?
A. 50-ohm flexible coax B. Multi-conductor unbalanced cable C. Air-insulated hard line D. 75-ohm flexible coax T9B11 (C)

Which of the following is the most common cause for failure of coaxial cables?
A. Moisture contamination B. Gamma rays C. The velocity factor exceeds 1.0 D. Overloading T7C09 (A)

Why should the outer jacket of coaxial cable be resistant to ultraviolet light?
A. Ultraviolet resistant jackets prevent harmonic radiation B. Ultraviolet light can increase losses in the cable’s jacket C. Ultraviolet and RF signals can mix together, causing interference D. Ultraviolet light can damage the jacket and allow water to enter the cable T7C10 (D)

What is a disadvantage of air core coaxial cable when compared to foam or solid dielectric types?
A. It has more loss per foot B. It cannot be used for VHF or UHF antennas C. It requires special techniques to prevent water absorption D. It cannot be used at below freezing temperatures T7C11 (C)

Short Break 10 Minute Stretch Open Q&A

Antennas

The Dipole Most basic antenna. Total length is ½ wavelength (1/2 l ).
Two conductive, equal length parts. Feed line connected in the middle. Total length is ½ wavelength (1/2 l ). Radiates strongest broadside to the length, least at the tips Use the formula Length (in feet) = 468 / Frequency (in MHz).

The Dipole

The Ground-Plane (Vertical)
Simply a dipole that is oriented perpendicular (vertical to the Earth’s surface). Shorter than a dipole as one half of the dipole is replaced by a ground-plane Ground plane acts as a “mirror” for the missing half). Groundplane is: Earth, Car roof/trunk lid/other metal surface, Radial wires. Radiates equally toward horizon, least toward tip Use the formula Length (in feet) = 234 / Frequency (in MHz). Mention here, or better yet have an example to show, that the ground-plane vertical antenna can have a magnetic mount for the car that precludes drilling holes in the car to mount the antenna.

The Ground-Plane

Directional (Beam) Antennas
Beam antennas focus or direct RF energy in a desired direction. Gain An apparent increase in power in the desired direction (both transmit and receive). Yagi (multiple rod elements – TV antennas). Delta & Quad arrays (wire loop elements). Dishes (microwave and satellite TV) Go over the concept of gain again with the students and emphasize that there is no increase in power from the transmitter, only an apparent increase in power because the available power is focused or directed in the desired direction at the expense of that power that would have been transmitted in the un-desired directions. Have on hand examples of the two common beam antennas, Yagi and Quad to illustrate the point here.

Directional (Beam) Antennas

What is a beam antenna? A. An antenna built from aluminum I-beams
B. An omnidirectional antenna invented by Clarence Beam C. An antenna that concentrates signals in one direction D. An antenna that reverses the phase of received signals T9A01 (C)

Which of the following is true regarding vertical antennas?
A. The magnetic field is perpendicular to the Earth B. The electric field is perpendicular to the Earth C. The phase is inverted D. The phase is reversed T9A02 (B)

Which of the following describes a simple dipole mounted so the conductor is parallel to the Earth's surface? A. A ground wave antenna B. A horizontally polarized antenna C. A rhombic antenna D. A vertically polarized antenna T9A03 (B)

What antenna polarization is normally used for long-distance weak-signal CW and SSB contacts using the VHF and UHF bands? A. Right-hand circular B. Left-hand circular C. Horizontal D. Vertical T3A03 (C)

What can happen if the antennas at opposite ends of a VHF or UHF line of sight radio link are not using the same polarization? A. The modulation sidebands might become inverted B. Signals could be significantly weaker C. Signals have an echo effect on voices D. Nothing significant will happen T3A04 (B)

What is a disadvantage of the "rubber duck" antenna supplied with most handheld radio transceivers?
A. It does not transmit or receive as effectively as a full-sized antenna B. It transmits a circularly polarized signal C. If the rubber end cap is lost it will unravel very quickly D. All of these choices are correct T9A04 (A)

How would you change a dipole antenna to make it resonant on a higher frequency?
A. Lengthen it B. Insert coils in series with radiating wires C. Shorten it D. Add capacitive loading to the ends of the radiating wires T9A05 (C)

Which of the following terms describes a type of loading when referring to an antenna?
A. Inserting an inductor in the radiating portion of the antenna to make it electrically longer B. Inserting a resistor in the radiating portion of the antenna to make it resonant C. Installing a spring at the base of the antenna to absorb the effects of collisions with other objects D. Making the antenna heavier so it will resist wind effects in motion T9A14 (A)

What type of antennas are the quad, Yagi, and dish?
A. Non-resonant antennas B. Loop antennas C. Directional antennas D. Isotropic antennas T9A06 (C)

What is a good reason not to use a "rubber duck" antenna inside your car?
A. Signals can be significantly weaker than when it is outside of the vehicle B. It might cause your radio to overheat C. The SWR might decrease, decreasing the signal strength D. All of these choices are correct T9A07 (A)

What is the approximate length, in inches, of a quarter-wavelength vertical antenna for 146 MHz?
B. 50 C. 19 D. 12 T9A08 (C)

What is the approximate length, in inches, of a 6 meter 1/2-wavelength wire dipole antenna?
B. 50 C. 112 D. 236 T9A09 (C)

In which direction is the radiation strongest from a half-wave dipole antenna in free space?
A. Equally in all directions B. Off the ends of the antenna C. Broadside to the antenna D. In the direction of the feedline T9A10 (C)

What is meant by the gain of an antenna?
A. The additional power that is added to the transmitter power B. The additional power that is lost in the antenna when transmitting on a higher frequency C. The increase in signal strength in a specified direction when compared to a reference antenna D. The increase in impedance on receive or transmit compared to a reference antenna T9A11 (C)

What is a reason to use a properly mounted 5/8 wavelength antenna for VHF or UHF mobile service?
A. It offers a lower angle of radiation and more gain than a ¼ wavelength antenna and usually provides improved coverage B. It features a very high angle of radiation and is better for communicating via a repeater C. The 5/8 wavelength antenna completely eliminates distortion caused by reflected signals D. The 5/8 wavelength antenna offers a 10-times power gain over a ¼ wavelength design T9A12 (A)

Why are VHF or UHF mobile antennas often mounted in the center of the vehicle roof?
A. Roof mounts have the lowest possible SWR of any mounting configuration B. Only roof mounting can guarantee a vertically polarized signal C. A roof mounted antenna normally provides the most uniform radiation pattern D. Roof mounted antennas are always the easiest to install T9A13 (C)

Propagation

Radio Wave Propagation: Getting from Point A to Point B
Radio waves propagate by many mechanisms. The science of wave propagation has many facets. We will discuss three basic ways: Line of sight Ground wave Sky-wave

Line-of-Sight If a source of radio energy can been seen by the receiver, then the radio energy will travel in a straight line from transmitter to receiver. There is some attenuation of the signal as the radio wave travels This is the primary propagation mode for VHF and UHF signals. Line-of-sight is probably the easiest propagation mode for students to understand. You can use a laser pointer to demonstrate line-of-sight. You will probably have to refresh the students memory on UHF and VHF definitions and their position on the RF spectrum. Also these bands will be the primary operating bands of the new hams. The maximum distance for line-of-sight transmissions with two people standing on the surface of the earth is about (roughly) 25 miles, this is due to the curvature of the earth. You can extend this discussion by briefly brining up repeaters and how they extend the line-of-sight range.

VHF and UHF Propagation
VHF & UHF propagation is principally line of sight. Range is slightly better than visual line of sight. Buildings may block line of sight, but reflections may help get past obstructions. “Knife-edge” diffraction (spreading caused by going across a sharp edge) can also occur Reflections from a transmitter that is moving cause multi-path which results in rapid fading of signal – known as picket fencing. UHF signals may work better inside buildings because of the shorter wavelength compared to VHF. Line-of-sight is probably the easiest propagation mode for students to understand. You can use a laser pointer to demonstrate line-of-sight. You will probably have to refresh the students memory on UHF and VHF definitions and their position on the RF spectrum. Also these bands will be the primary operating bands of the new hams. The maximum distance for line-of-sight transmissions with two people standing on the surface of the earth is about (roughly) 25 miles, this is due to the curvature of the earth. You can extend this discussion by briefly brining up repeaters and how they extend the line-of-sight range.

VHF and UHF Propagation (cont)
Sometimes unusual propagation conditions can increase the range of VHF/UHF signals Sporadic E occurs due to unusual conditions that occur in the ionosphere E-layer causing small ionized clouds Strongest for 6M and 2M signals, range of miles Tropospheric ducting is caused temperature inversions in the troposphere (10 miles high) Strongest for VHF/UHF signals, range of miles Meteor scatter is caused by reflections from the ionized trail of meteors Works best for 6M and 2M signals Auroral reflection can occur Shifts and fluctuates (as in videos of aurora) Line-of-sight is probably the easiest propagation mode for students to understand. You can use a laser pointer to demonstrate line-of-sight. You will probably have to refresh the students memory on UHF and VHF definitions and their position on the RF spectrum. Also these bands will be the primary operating bands of the new hams. The maximum distance for line-of-sight transmissions with two people standing on the surface of the earth is about (roughly) 25 miles, this is due to the curvature of the earth. You can extend this discussion by briefly brining up repeaters and how they extend the line-of-sight range.

Ground Wave Some radio frequency ranges (lower HF frequencies) will hug the earth’s surface as they travel These waves will travel beyond the range of line-of-sight A few hundred miles Point out that this propagation mode is the one used by AM broadcast stations in the day light hours. You can connect with the students experiences with receiving AM broadcast stations using ground waves. What happens at night? Why do they change power levels depending on the time of day? How is the reception at night?

Ionosphere Radiation from the Sun ionizes the upper atmosphere.
The region where ionization occurs is called the ionosphere Miles high The ionosphere has multiple layers (D, E, F) These layers change throughout the day based on incident sunlight Discuss with the students what happens to ionize the upper reaches of the atmosphere. You may have to tap into some old science lessons and vocabulary that the students haven’t thought about in years. Define what an Ion is. The concept of momentarily stripping away the electrons is important when you get into the details of the layers of the ionosphere and the time it takes for the ionosphere to dissipate during the evening and night time hours. You can also refer back to the students experience with AM broadcasts and what they observe at night versus what they observe during the day time.

The Ionosphere – An RF Mirror
Layers of the ionosphere behave differently toward RF D-layer can absorb RF F-layer can act as an RF mirror Sky-wave propagation due to F-layer is responsible for most long-range, over the horizon communication. Reflection depends on frequency and angle of incidence and time of day. Lower HF bands (160M, 80M, 40M) propagate at night Higher HF bands (20M, 10M) propagate best in the day If the angle is too steep, the waves go right through. If the frequencies are too low or too high, they also are not reflected, and in some cases are absorbed by the layer. Constant monitoring of the ionosphere indicates the maximum and minimum usable frequencies for sky-wave propagation. Hams interested in DX (you might have to explain DX) will adjust their operating bands to take advantage of those frequencies that are reflected off the ionosphere.

Why are direct (not via a repeater) UHF signals rarely heard from stations outside your local coverage area? A. They are too weak to go very far B. FCC regulations prohibit them from going more than 50 miles C. UHF signals are usually not reflected by the ionosphere D. They collide with trees and shrubbery and fade out T3C01 (C)

Which of the following might be happening when VHF signals are being received from long distances?
A. Signals are being reflected from outer space B. Signals are arriving by sub-surface ducting C. Signals are being reflected by lightning storms in your area D. Signals are being refracted from a sporadic E layer T3C02 (D)

What is a characteristic of VHF signals received via auroral reflection?
A. Signals from distances of 10,000 or more miles are common B. The signals exhibit rapid fluctuations of strength and often sound distorted C. These types of signals occur only during winter nighttime hours D. These types of signals are generally strongest when your antenna is aimed west T3C03 (B)

Which of the following propagation types is most commonly associated with occasional strong over-the-horizon signals on the 10, 6, and 2 meter bands? A. Backscatter B. Sporadic E C. D layer absorption D. Gray-line propagation T3C04 (B)

Which of the following effects might cause radio signals to be heard despite obstructions between the transmitting and receiving stations? A. Knife-edge defraction B. Faraday rotation C. Quantum tunneling D. Doppler shift T3C05 (A)

A. Tropospheric scatter B. D layer refraction C. F2 layer refraction
What mode is responsible for allowing over-the-horizon VHF and UHF communications to ranges of approximately 300 miles on a regular basis? A. Tropospheric scatter B. D layer refraction C. F2 layer refraction D. Faraday rotation T3C06 (A)

What band is best suited for communicating via meteor scatter?
A. 10 meters B. 6 meters C. 2 meters D. 70 cm T3C07 (B)

What causes tropospheric ducting?
A. Discharges of lightning during electrical storms B. Sunspots and solar flares C. Updrafts from hurricanes and tornadoes D. Temperature inversions in the atmosphere T3C08 (D)

What is generally the best time for long-distance 10 meter band propagation via the F layer?
A. During daylight hours B. During nighttime hours C. When there are coronal mass ejections D. Whenever the solar flux is low T3C09 (A)

Which of the following bands may provide long distance communications during the peak of the sunspot cycle? A. Six or 10 meters B. 23 centimeters C. 70 centimeters or 1.25 meters D. all of these choices are correct B & C: These wavelengths are primarily line-of-sight, not long distance. T3C12 (A)

What is the radio horizon?
A. The distance over which two stations can communicate by direct path B. The distance from the ground to a horizontally mounted antenna C. The farthest point you can see when standing at the base of your antenna tower D. The shortest distance between two points on the Earth's surface T3C10 (A)

Why do VHF and UHF radio signals usually travel somewhat farther than the visual line of sight distance between two stations? A. Radio signals move somewhat faster than the speed of light B. Radio waves are not blocked by dust particles C. The Earth seems less curved to radio waves than to light D. Radio waves are blocked by dust particles T3C11 (C)

What should you do if another operator reports that your station’s 2 meter signals were strong just a moment ago, but now they are weak or distorted? A. Change the batteries in your radio to a different type B. Turn on the CTCSS tone C. Ask the other operator to adjust his squelch control D. Try moving a few feet or changing the direction of your antenna if possible, as reflections may be causing multi-path distortion T3A01 (D)

Why are UHF signals often more effective from inside buildings than VHF signals?
A. VHF signals lose power faster over distance B. The shorter wavelength allows them to more easily penetrate the structure of buildings C. This is incorrect; VHF works better than UHF inside buildings D. UHF antennas are more efficient than VHF antennas T3A02 (B)

When using a directional antenna, how might your station be able to access a distant repeater if buildings or obstructions are blocking the direct line of sight path? A. Change from vertical to horizontal polarization B. Try to find a path that reflects signals to the repeater C. Try the long path D. Increase the antenna SWR T3A05 (B)

What term is commonly used to describe the rapid fluttering sound sometimes heard from mobile stations that are moving while transmitting? A. Flip-flopping B. Picket fencing C. Frequency shifting D. Pulsing T3A06 (B)

What type of wave carries radio signals between transmitting and receiving stations?
A. Electromagnetic B. Electrostatic C. Surface acoustic D. Magnetostrictive T3A07 (A)

Which of the following is a likely cause of irregular fading of signals received by ionospheric reflection A. Frequency shift due to Faraday rotation B. Interference from thunderstorms C. Random combining of signals arriving via different paths D. Intermodulation distortion T3A08 (C)

Which of the following results from the fact that skip signals refracted from the ionosphere are elliptically polarized? A. Digital modes are unusable B. Either vertically or horizontally polarized antennas may be used for transmission or reception C. FM voice is unusable D. Both the transmitting and receiving antennas must be of the same polarization T3A09 (B)

What may occur if data signals propagate over multiple paths?
A. Transmission rates can be increased by a factor equal to the number of separate paths observed B. Transmission rates must be decreased by a factor equal to the number of separate paths observed C. No significant changes will occur if the signals are transmitting using FM D. Error rates are likely to increase T3A10 (D)

Which part of the atmosphere enables the propagation of radio signals around the world?
A. The stratosphere B. The troposphere C. The ionosphere D. The magnetosphere T3A11 (C)

RFI & Solutions

Radio Frequency Interference (RFI)
Unwanted, unintentional signals from some electronic device that interferes with radio wave reception. You can prevent creating RFI by operating your transmitting equipment properly. Point out that RFI can come from virtually any electronic device from overhead power lines, to electric can openers, to computers and TV sets.

RFI Mitigation Filters High-pass –generally on the receive side.
Filters attenuate (reduce) interfering signals – but do not totally eliminate them. High-pass –generally on the receive side. Low-pass – generally on the transmit side. Band-pass – used within most radio equipment Band-reject – selectively applied as needed Emphasize that filters can only attenuate the offending signal, they can not eliminate the signals. Discuss briefly the different kinds of filters and how they might be used. Have a high pass filter on hand that might be inserted into the feed line of a TV set to mitigate interfering signals and discuss how it might be installed.

Types of RFI Direct detection – offending signals get into the electronics circuits to cause interference. Overload – strong signal that overwhelms the weaker, wanted signal. Harmonics – integer multiples of the offending signal that coincide with the wanted signal. Discuss briefly with the students these basic types of RFI, and how they might be able to distinguish between them. At the same time, discuss some techniques they might use to mitigate the effects of the interference. Direct detection usually affects consumer electronic devices (telephones and audio equipment). Can be mitigated by proper manufacture, installation, shielding, filters, ferrite bead chokes, etc. Actually very hard to deal with and generally not the fault of the ham radio operator, but try to convince your neighbor of that who just spent hundreds of dollars on their new equipment. Overload – generally is a problem in fringe reception areas of TV signals. Not as much a problem now days with satellite and cable TV. Usually the problem can be mitigated by reducing transmitter power or filtering. Harmonics – generally are a symptom of poor transmitter design or operation.

Dealing with RFI Take interference complaints seriously.
Make sure that you’re really not the cause (demonstrate that you don’t interfere within your own home). Offer to help eliminate the RFI, even if you are not at fault. RFI from and to unlicensed devices is the responsibility of the users of such devices Bottom line – If your station is operating properly, you are protected against interference complaints

Which of the following meets the FCC definition of harmful interference?
A. Radio transmissions that annoy users of a repeater B. Unwanted radio transmissions that cause costly harm to radio station apparatus C. That which seriously degrades, obstructs, or repeatedly interrupts a radio communication service operating in accordance with the Radio Regulations D. Static from lightning storms T1A04 (C) [97.3(a)(23)]

Which of the following services are protected from interference by amateur signals under all circumstances? A. Citizen Radio Service B. Broadcast Service C. Land Mobile Radio Service D. Radionavigation Service T1A06 (D)

Where must a filter be installed to reduce harmonic emissions from your station?
A. Between the transmitter and the antenna B. Between the receiver and the transmitter C. At the station power supply D. At the microphone T4A04 (A)

What type of filter should be connected to a TV receiver as the first step in trying to prevent RF overload from a nearby 2 meter transmitter? A. Low-pass filter B. High-pass filter C. Band-pass filter D. Band-reject filter T4A05 (D)

What can you do if you are told your FM handheld or mobile transceiver is over-deviating?
A. Talk louder into the microphone B. Let the transceiver cool off C. Change to a higher power level D. Talk farther away from the microphone T7B01 (D)

What would cause a broadcast AM or FM radio to receive an amateur radio transmission unintentionally? A. The receiver is unable to reject strong signals outside the AM or FM band B. The microphone gain of the transmitter is turned up too high C. The audio amplifier of the transmitter is overloaded D. The deviation of an FM transmitter is set too low T7B02 (A)

Which of the following may be a cause of radio frequency interference?
A. Fundamental overload B. Harmonics C. Spurious emissions D. All of these choices are correct T7B03 (D)

Which of the following is a way to reduce or eliminate interference by an amateur transmitter to a nearby telephone? A. Put a filter on the amateur transmitter B. Reduce the microphone gain C. Reduce the SWR of the transmitter transmission line D. Put a RF filter on the telephone T7B04 (D)

How can overload of a non-amateur radio or TV receiver by an amateur signal be reduced or eliminated? A. Block the amateur signal with a filter at the antenna input of the affected receiver B. Block the interfering signal with a filter on the amateur transmitter C. Switch the transmitter from FM to SSB D. Switch the transmitter to a narrow-band mode T7B05 (A)

Which of the following actions should you take if a neighbor tells you that your station’s transmissions are interfering with their radio or TV reception? A. Make sure that your station is functioning properly and that it does not cause interference to your own radio or television when it is tuned to the same channel B. Immediately turn off your transmitter and contact the nearest FCC office for assistance C. Tell them that your license gives you the right to transmit and nothing can be done to reduce the interference D. Install a harmonic doubler on the output of your transmitter and tune it until the interference is eliminated T7B06 (A)

What might be the first step to resolve cable TV interference from your ham radio transmission?
A. Add a low pass filter to the TV antenna input B. Add a high pass filter to the TV antenna input C. Add a preamplifier to the TV antenna input D. Be sure all TV coaxial connectors are installed properly T7B12 (D)

Which of the following may be useful in correcting a radio frequency interference problem?
A. Snap-on ferrite chokes B. Low-pass and high-pass filters C. Band-reject and band-pass filters D. All of these choices are correct T7B07 (D)

What should you do if something in a neighbor’s home is causing harmful interference to your amateur station? A. Work with your neighbor to identify the offending device B. Politely inform your neighbor about the rules that prohibit the use of devices which cause interference C. Check your station and make sure it meets the standards of good amateur practice D. All of these choices are correct T7B08 (D)

What is a Part 15 device? A. An unlicensed device that may emit low powered radio signals on frequencies used by a licensed service B. A type of amateur radio that can legally be used in the citizen’s band C. A device for long distance communications using special codes sanctioned by the International Amateur Radio Union D. A type of test set used to determine whether a transmitter is in compliance with FCC regulation 91.15 T7B09 (A)

What might be the problem if you receive a report that your audio signal through the repeater is distorted or unintelligible? A. Your transmitter may be slightly off frequency B. Your batteries may be running low C. You could be in a bad location D. All of these choices are correct T7B10 (D)

What is a symptom of RF feedback in a transmitter or transceiver?
A. Excessive SWR at the antenna connection B. The transmitter will not stay on the desired frequency C. Reports of garbled, distorted, or unintelligible transmissions D. Frequent blowing of power supply fuses T7B11 (C)

Which type of conductor is best to use for RF grounding?
A. Round stranded wire B. Round copper-clad steel wire C. Twisted-pair cable D. Flat strap T4A08 (D)

Which of the following is a common reason to use shielded wire?
A. To decrease the resistance of DC power connections B. To inctease the current carrying capability of the wire C. To prevent coupling of unwanted signals to or from the wire D. To couple the wire to other signals T6D12 (C)

Which of the following could you use to cure distorted audio caused by RF current flowing on the shield of a microphone cable? A. Band-pass filter B. Low-pass filter C. Preamplifier D. Ferrite choke T4A09 (D)

What could be happening if another operator reports a variable high-pitched whine on the audio from your mobile transmitter? A. Your microphone is picking up noise from an open window B. You have the volume on your receiver set too high C. You need to adjust your squelch control D. Noise on the vehicle’s electrical system is being transmitted along with your speech audio T4A12 (D)

What is the source of a high-pitched whine that varies with engine speed in a mobile transceiver’s receive audio? A. The ignition system B. The alternator C. The electric fuel pump D. Anti-lock braking system controllers T4A10 (B)

Where should the negative return connection of a mobile transceiver’s power cable be connected?
A. At the battery or engine block ground strap B. At the antenna mount C. To any metal part of the vehicle D. Through the transceiver’s mounting bracket T4A11 (A)

Which of the following methods is used to locate sources of noise interference or jamming?
A. Echolocation B. Doppler radar C. Radio direction finding D. Phase locking T8C01 (C)

Which of these items would be useful for a hidden transmitter hunt?
A. Calibrated SWR meter B. A directional antenna C. A calibrated noise bridge D. All of these choices are correct T8C02 (B)

What could cause your FM signal to interfere with stations n nearby frequencies?
A. Microphone gain too high, causing over-deviation B. SWR too high C. Incorrect CTCSS Tone D. All of these choices are correct T2B07 (A)

Electronic Components

Electronic Components
There are many types of electronic components Resistors impede the flow of current and are measured in Ohms Capacitors store energy in an electric field and are measured in Farads Inductors store energy in a magnetic field and are measured in Henrys Transformers change AC voltage levels, up or down

Electronic Components (cont)
Diodes are semiconductors that only allow current to flow one-way, have two terminals (anode and cathode), and they include types such as rectifiers (power diode) or LEDs (light-emitting diode) Transistors are semiconductors that can control and amplify current (called gain), they have 3 terminals and include many types, two being BJT and FET BJTs (bipolar junction transistor) have collector, base and emitter terminals FETs (field effect transistor) have source, drain and gate terminals

Electronic Components (cont)
There are many other components Batteries AC Power Switches Relays Fuses Lamps Terminals Ground Antenna Microphones or Speakers Integrated circuits (semiconductors containing many transistors) Etc, etc

What is the ability to store energy in an electric field called?
A. Inductance B. Resistance C. Tolerance D. Capacitance T5C01 (D)

What is the basic unit of capacitance?
A. The farad B. The ohm C. The volt D. The henry T5C02 (A)

What electrical component stores energy in an electric field?
A. Resistor B. Capacitor C. Inductor D. Diode T6A04 (B)

What type of electrical component consists of two or more conductive surfaces separated by an insulator? A. Resistor B. Potentiometer C. Oscillator D. Capacitor T6A05 (D)

What is the basic unit of inductance?
A. The coulomb B. The farad C. The henry D. The ohm T5C04 (C)

What is the ability to store energy in a magnetic field called?
A. Admittance B. Capacitance C. Resistance D. Inductance T5C03 (D)

What type of electrical component stores energy in a magnetic field?
A. Resistor B. Capacitor C. Inductor D. Diode T6A06 (C)

What electrical component is usually composed of a coil of wire?
A. Switch B. Capacitor C. Diode D. Inductor T6A07 (D)

What is a simple resonant or tuned circuit?
A. An inductor and a capacitor connected in series or parallel to form a filter B. A type of voltage regulator C. A resistor circuit used for reducing standing wave ratio D. A circuit designed to provide high fidelity audio T6D11 (A)

What electrical component is used to connect or disconnect electrical circuits?
A. Magnetron B. Switch C. Thermistor D. All of these choices are correct T6A08 (B)

What electrical component is used to protect other circuit components from current overloads?
A. Fuse B. Capacitor C. Inductor D. All of these choices are correct T6A09 (A)

What class of electronic components is capable of using a voltage or current signal to control current flow? A. Capacitors B. Inductors C. Resistors D. Transistors T6B01 (D)

What electronic component allows current to flow in only one direction?
A. Resistor B. Fuse C. Diode D. Driven Element T6B02 (C)

Which of these components can be used as an electronic switch or amplifier?
A. Oscillator B. Potentiometer C. Transistor D. Voltmeter T6B03 (C)

Which of these components can be made of three layers of semiconductor material?
A. Alternator B. Transistor C. Triode D. Pentagrid converter T6B04 (B)

Which of the following electronic components can amplify signals?
A. Transistor B. Variable resistor C. Electrolytic capacitor D. Multi-cell battery T6B05 (A)

How is the cathode lead of a semiconductor diode usually identified?
A. With the word cathode B. With a stripe C. With the letter C D. All of these choices are correct T6B06 (B)

What does the abbreviation LED stand for?
A. Low Emission Diode B. Light Emitting Diode C. Liquid Emission Detector D. Long Echo Delay T6B07 (B)

What does the abbreviation FET stand for?
A. Field Effect Transistor B. Fast Electron Transistor C. Free Electron Transition D. Field Emission Thickness T6B08 (A)

What are the names of the two electrodes of a diode?
A. Plus and minus B. Source and drain C. Anode and cathode D. Gate and base T6B09 (C)

What are the three electrodes of a PNP or NPN transistor?
A. Emitter, base, and collector B. Source, gate, and drain C. Cathode, grid, and plate D. Cathode, drift cavity, and collector T6B10 (A)

What are the three electrodes of a field effect transistor?
A. Emitter, base, and collector B. Source, gate, and drain C. Cathode, grid, and plate D. Cathode, gate, and anode T6B11 (B)

What is the term that describes a transistor's ability to amplify a signal?
A. Gain B. Forward resistance C. Forward voltage drop D. On resistance T6B12 (A)

Which of the following devices or circuits changes an alternating current into a varying direct current signal? A. Transformer B. Rectifier C. Amplifier D. Reflector T6D01 (B)

What best describes a relay?
A. A switch controlled by an electromagnet B. A current controlled amplifier C. An optical sensor D. A pass transistor T6D02 (A)

Which of the following can be used to display signal strength on a numeric scale?
A. Potentiometer B. Transistor C. Meter D. Relay T6D04 (C)

What type of circuit controls the amount of voltage from a power supply?
A. Regulator B. Oscillator C. Filter D. Phase inverter T6D05 (A)

What component is commonly used to change 120V AC house current to a lower AC voltage for other uses? A. Variable capacitor B. Transformer C. Transistor D. Diode T6D06 (B)

Which of the following is commonly used as a visual indicator?
A. LED B. FET C. Zener diode D. Bipolar transistor T6D07 (A)

Which of the following is used together with an inductor to make a tuned circuit?
A. Resistor B. Zener diode C. Potentiometer D. Capacitor T6D08 (D)

What is the name of a device that combines several semiconductors and other components into one package? A. Transducer B. Multi-pole relay C. Integrated circuit D. Transformer T6D09 (C)

Basic Circuits Spend some time discussing how to get the most performance out of the HT (hold the HT vertical, speak across the mic, not into the mic, etc.) Also make sure that you cover that the rubber duck antenna actually has negative gain when compared to other antennas, that the trade-off for the convenience of a small, flexible antenna is reduced performance.

Simple Circuits Electronic components are assembled together into circuits to perform a certain function The wiring diagram showing the electronic components and how they are interconnected is called a schematic diagram This is an example schematic diagram showing: Input terminals Resistor (#1) Transistor (#2) Lamp (#3) Battery (#4) Ground (#5, see note) Note: “Ground” is not an electronic component even though it has its own symbol! It is a wiring and diagram convention that means a common wiring point in the circuit as well as a reference point for electrical measurements.

What is the name for standardized representations of components in an electrical wiring diagram?
A. Electrical depictions B. Grey sketch C. Schematic symbols D. Component callouts T6C01 (C)

What do the symbols on an electrical circuit schematic diagram represent?
A. Electrical components B. Logic states C. Digital codes D. Traffic nodes T6C12 (A)

Which of the following is accurately represented in electrical circuit schematic diagrams?
A. Wire lengths B. Physical appearance of components C. The way components are interconnected D. All of these choices are correct T6C13 (C)

What is component 1 in figure T1?
A. Resistor B. Transistor C. Battery D. Connector T6C02 (A)

A. Resistor B. Transistor C. Indicator lamp D. Connector T6C03 (B)

A. Resistor B. Transistor C. Lamp D. Ground symbol T6C04 (C)

A. Resistor B. Transistor C. Battery D. Ground symbol T6C05 (C)

What is the function of component 2 in Figure T1?
A. Give off light when current flows through it B. Supply electrical energy C. Control the flow of current D. Convert electrical energy into radio waves T6D10 (C)

A. Resistor B. Capacitor C. Regulator IC D. Transistor T6C06 (B)

A. Resistor B. Inductor C. Regulator IC D. Light emitting diode T6C07 (D)

A. Variable capacitor B. Variable inductor C. Variable resistor D. Variable transformer T6C08 (C)

A. Variable inductor B. Double-pole switch C. Potentiometer D. Transformer T6C09 (D)

What type of switch is represented by component 3 in figure T2?
A. Single-pole single-throw B. Single-pole double-throw C. Double-pole single-throw D. Double-pole double-throw T6D03 (A)

A. Connector B. Meter C. Variable capacitor D. Variable inductor T6C10 (D)

A. Antenna B. Transmitter C. Dummy load D. Ground T6C11 (A)

Transceiver Basics Most modern transmitters and receivers are combined in one unit – called a transceiver – to reduce cost and physical size PRODUCT DETECTOR The transmitter and receiver sections share a common antenna and power supply The transmitter and receiver use internal rf signals generated by oscillators Mixers move the oscillator signals to new frequencies as required

Transceiver Basics (Cont’d)
The receiver uses an oscillator and mixer to downconvert the incoming signal and a demodulator to recover the voice or data The primary performance attributes of the receiver are: Sensitivity – the ability to detect weak signals Selectivity – the ability to discriminate between signals of nearly the same frequency A preamplifier is often used to make the receiver more sensitive

The transmitter uses an oscillator (and mixer) to generate the carrier frequency and a modulator to add the voice or data to the carrier A Transverter (short for “transmitting converter”) is sometimes used to convert a transceiver to operate on another frequency band For example, HF SSB/CW at 28 MHz translated to 222 MHz

Most modern radios operate on “12 volts” direct current (DC) for fixed-station or mobile use The actual voltage is 13.8 Vdc which is the charging voltage for most motorized vehicles Regulated voltage is preferred in order to minimize voltage fluctuations Microphone and power connectors may vary among manufacturers and models

A handheld transceiver usually transmits at low power (5 watts or less) An external amplifier can be used to increase the transmitted power A “full size” multi-mode base station can transmit at high power and usually has superior receiving capability for intercepting weak signals

What is a transceiver? A. A type of antenna switch
B. A unit combining the functions of a transmitter and a receiver C. A component in a repeater which filters out unwanted interference D. A type of antenna matching network T7A02 (B)

What is the name of a circuit that generates a signal of a desired frequency?
A. Reactance modulator B. Product detector C. Low-pass filter D. Oscillator T7A05 (D)

Which of the following is used to convert a radio signal from one frequency to another?
A. Phase splitter B. Mixer C. Inverter D. Amplifier T7A03 (B)

Where is an RF preamplifier installed?
A. Between the antenna and receiver B. At the output of the transmitter's power amplifier C. Between a transmitter and antenna tuner D. At the receiver's audio output T7A11 (A)

Which term describes the ability of a receiver to detect the presence of a signal?
A. Linearity B. Sensitivity C. Selectivity D. Total harmonic distortion T7A01 (B)

Which term describes the ability of a receiver to discriminate between multiple signals?
A. Discrimination ratio B. Sensitivity C. Selectivity D. Harmonic distortion T7A04 (C)

Which of the following describes combining speech with an RF carrier signal?
A. Impedance matching B. Oscillation C. Modulation D. Low-pass filtering T7A08 (C)

How much voltage does a mobile transceiver usually require?
A. About 12 volts B. About 30 volts C. About 120 volts D. About 240 volts T5A06 (A)

Which is a good reason to use a regulated power supply for communications equipment?
A. It prevents voltage fluctuations from reaching sensitive circuits B. A regulated power supply has FCC approval C. A fuse or circuit breaker regulates the power D. Power consumption is independent of load T4A03 (A)

Which of the following is true concerning the microphone connectors on amateur transceivers?
A. All transceivers use the same microphone connector type B. Some connectors include push-to-talk and voltages for powering the microphone C. All transceivers using the same connector type are wired identically D. Un-keyed connectors allow any microphone to be connected T4A01 (B)

What device takes the output of a low-powered 28 MHz SSB exciter and produces a 222 MHz output signal? A. High-pass filter B. Low-pass filter C. Transverter D. Phase converter T7A06 (C)

What device increases the low-power output from a handheld transceiver?
A. A voltage divider B. An RF power amplifier C. An impedance network D. All of these choices are correct T7A10 (B)

Which of the following devices is most useful for VHF weak-signal communication?
A. A quarter-wave vertical antenna B. A multi-mode VHF transceiver C. An omni-directional antenna D. A mobile VHF FM transceiver T7A09 (B)

How might a computer be used as part of an amateur radio station?
A. For logging contacts and contact information B. For sending and/or receiving CW C. For generating and decoding digital signals D. All of these choices are correct T4A02 (D)

Testing Electronics There is a specialized meter for each of the key electrical characteristics (Voltage, Current, Resistance) Voltmeter, Ammeter, Ohmmeter Voltage and Resistance are measured in parallel Current is measured in series An ohmmeter works by applying a small voltage and measuring the resulting current A type of meter that combines V, I and R measurement (typically) is called a Multimeter Other test equipment types include Wattmeter, SWR meter, Antenna Analyzer, etc Electronic components are joined with rosin-core solder Good solder connections are smooth/shiny, bad ones are grainy/dull

Which of the following instruments can be used to determine if an antenna is resonant at the desired operating frequency? A. A VTVM B. An antenna analyzer C. A Q meter D. A frequency counter T7C02 (B)

Which instrument would you use to measure electric potential or electromotive force?
A. An ammeter B. A voltmeter C. A wavemeter D. An ohmmeter T7D01 (B)

What is the correct way to connect a voltmeter to a circuit?
A. In series with the circuit B. In parallel with the circuit C. In quadrature with the circuit D. In phase with the circuit T7D02 (B)

Which instrument is used to measure electric current?
A. An ohmmeter B. A wavemeter C. A voltmeter D. An ammeter T7D04 (D)

How is an ammeter usually connected to a circuit?
A. In series with the circuit B. In parallel with the circuit C. In quadrature with the circuit D. In phase with the circuit T7D03 (A)

What instrument is used to measure resistance?
A. An oscilloscope B. A spectrum analyzer C. A noise bridge D. An ohmmeter T7D05 (D)

Which of the following precautions should be taken when measuring circuit resistance with an ohmmeter? A. Ensure that the applied voltages are correct B. Ensure that the circuit is not powered C. Ensure that the circuit is grounded D. Ensure that the circuit is operating at the correct frequency T7D11 (B)

What is probably happening when an ohmmeter, connected across an unpowered circuit, initially indicates a low resistance and then shows increasing resistance with time? A. The ohmmeter is defective B. The circuit contains a large capacitor C. The circuit contains a large inductor D. The circuit is a relaxation oscillator T7D10 (B)

Which of the following measurements are commonly made using a multimeter?
A. SWR and RF power B. Signal strength and noise C. Impedance and reactance D. Voltage and resistance T7D07 (D)

Which of the following might damage a multimeter?
A. Measuring a voltage too small for the chosen scale B. Leaving the meter in the milliamps position overnight C. Attempting to measure voltage when using the resistance setting D. Not allowing it to warm up properly T7D06 (C)

Which of the following precautions should be taken when measuring high voltages with a voltmeter?
A. Ensure that the voltmeter has very low impedance B. Ensure that the voltmeter and leads are rated for use at the voltages to be measured C. Ensure that the circuit is grounded through the voltmeter D. Ensure that the voltmeter is set to the correct frequency T7D12 (B)

Which of the following types of solder is best for radio and electronic use?
A. Acid-core solder B. Silver solder C. Rosin-core solder D. Aluminum solder T7D08 (C)

What is the characteristic appearance of a cold solder joint?
A. Dark black spots B. A bright or shiny surface C. A grainy or dull surface D. A greenish tint T7D09 (C)

Lunch Break 20 Minute Meal & Stretch Open Q&A

Radio Functions & Repeaters

Transceiver Front Panel

Transmitter Controls and Functions
Main tuning dial (both TX and RX): Controls the frequency selection via the Variable Frequency Oscillator (VFO). Could be an actual dial or key pad or programmed channels. Microphone controls Gain How loudly you need to talk to be heard. Speech Compressor or Speech Processor Compacting your speech into a narrow frequency range to enhance “punch.”

Transmitter Controls and Functions
Mode selector (both TX and RX multi-mode rigs). AM/FM/SSB (LSB or USB) CW Data (RTTY) Transmitter on/off Push-to-Talk (PTT) Voice-Operated Transmission (VOX)

Receiver Controls and Functions
AF Gain or Volume Controls the audio level to the speaker or headphones. RF Gain Controls the strength of radio signal entering the receiver. Used to limit (attenuate) very strong local signals. Usually operated in the full-open position.

Automatic Gain Control (AGC) Automatically limits the incoming signals during signal (voice) peaks. Prevents peaks from capturing the receiver and limiting reception of lower level portions of the incoming signal. Not used in FM because of the type of signal used in FM. Squelch Turns off audio to speaker when signal is not present. Used in FM primarily Open – allows very weak signals to pass through (along with noise). Tight – allows only the strongest signals to pass through.

Filters Band-pass filter Used to narrow the width of signal that is passed. Can attenuate adjacent interference. Notch filter Very narrow filter that can be moved over an interfering signal to attenuate it. Noise blanker or limiter Limits signal spikes that are frequently associated with random naturally generated noise.

What is the function of automatic gain control or AGC?
A. To keep the received audio relatively constant B. To protect an antenna from lightning C. To eliminate RF on the station cabling D. An asymmetric goniometer control used for antenna matching T4B12 (A)

What may happen if a transmitter is operated with the microphone gain set too high?
A. The output power might be too high B. The output signal might become distorted C. The frequency might vary D. The SWR might increase T4B01 (B)

Which of the following can be used to enter the operating frequency on a modern transceiver?
A. The keypad or VFO knob B. The CTCSS or DTMF encoder C. The Automatic Frequency Control D. All of these choices are correct T4B02 (A)

What is the purpose of the squelch control on a transceiver?
A. To set the highest level of volume desired B. To set the transmitter power level C. To adjust the automatic gain control D. To mute receiver output noise when no signal is being received T4B03 (D)

What is a way to enable quick access to a favorite frequency on your transceiver?
A. Enable the CTCSS tones B. Store the frequency in a memory channel C. Disable the CTCSS tones D. Use the scan mode to select the desired frequency T4B04 (B)

Which of the following would reduce ignition interference to a receiver?
A. Change frequency slightly B. Decrease the squelch setting C. Turn on the noise blanker D. Use the RIT control T4B05 (C)

Which of the following controls could be used if the voice pitch of a single-sideband signal seems too high or low? A. The AGC or limiter B. The bandwidth selection C. The tone squelch D. The receiver RIT or clarifier T4B06 (D)

What does the term "RIT" mean?
A. Receiver Input Tone B. Receiver Incremental Tuning C. Rectifier Inverter Test D. Remote Input Transmitter T4B07 (B)

What is meant by the term “PTT”?
A. Pre-transmission tuning to reduce transmitter harmonic emission B. Precise tone transmissions used to limit repeater access to only certain signals C. A primary transformer tuner use to match antennas D. The push to talk function which switches between receive and transmit T7A07 (D)

What is the advantage of having multiple receive bandwidth choices on a multimode transceiver?
A. Permits monitoring several modes at once B. Permits noise or interference reduction by selecting a bandwidth matching the mode C. Increases the number of frequencies that can be stored in memory D. Increases the amount of offset between receive and transmit frequencies T4B08 (B)

Which of the following is an appropriate receive filter bandwidth to select in order to minimize noise and interference for SSB reception? A. 500 Hz B Hz C Hz D Hz T4B09 (C)

Which of the following is an appropriate receive filter bandwidth to select in order to minimize noise and interference for CW reception? A. 500 Hz B Hz C Hz D Hz T4B10 (A)

Repeaters Repeaters are amateur stations, usually located in high places (hilltops, tall buildings, towers), that re-transmit your signal to provide a wider coverage area Generally operated in the VHF or UHF bands and use FM In order for a repeater to receive your signal and retransmit simultaneously, two different frequencies must be used at the same time Transmitting and receiving using two frequencies is called Duplex Transmitting and receiving on the same frequency is called Simplex (the normal mode when not using a repeater)

Repeater Frequency Offset
The difference between the transmit and receive frequency is called the offset (also shift or split) Different bands have different standardized amounts of offset. There are + and – offsets depending on the plan. The most useful offsets to remember are: 2M (144MHz) = +/- 600 KHz 70 cm (440MHz) = +/- 5 MHz The use of different terms for frequency offset might confuse students, let them know that all the terms refer to the same thing. Discuss with the students that most modern radios will automatically set the standardized offset frequency when programmed, that they must specifically program in a non-standard split for those repeaters requiring it. Finally, let them know that the offset plan is not law, just a plan that is used by convention. There are some repeaters that use non standardized splits in order to limit or control use.

Repeater Access Tone or Code
Sometimes multiple repeaters can be accessed at the same time unintentionally. To preclude unintentional access, some repeaters require a special tone or code to be present before the repeater controller will recognize the signal as a valid signal and turn on the repeater. These tones or codes will depend on the repeater system usage CTCSS (Continuous Tone Coded Squelch System) DCS (Digital Coded Squelch) Audio Tone Burst (often 1750 Hz, used in Europe) You will have to define what sub-audible means and give some examples of tone frequencies.

What is the term used to describe an amateur station that is transmitting and receiving on the same frequency? A. Full duplex communication B. Diplex communication C. Simplex communication D. Multiplex communication T2B01 (C)

Which of the following describes the common meaning of the term “repeater offset”?
A. The distance between the repeater’s transmit and receive antennas B. The time delay before the repeater timer resets C. The difference between the repeater’s transmit and receive frequencies D. Matching the antenna impedance to the feed line impedance T4B11 (C)

What is the most common repeater frequency offset in the 2 meter band?
A. Plus 500 kHz B. Plus or minus 600 kHz C. Minus 500 kHz D. Only plus 600 kHz T2A01 (B)

What is a common repeater frequency offset in the 70 cm band?
A. Plus or minus 5 MHz B. Plus or minus 600 kHz C. Minus 600 kHz D. Plus 600 kHz T2A03 (A)

What is the term used to describe the use of a sub-audible tone transmitted with normal voice audio to open the squelch of a receiver? A. Carrier squelch B. Tone burst C. DTMF D. CTCSS T2B02 (D)

Which of the following describes the muting of receiver audio controlled solely by the presence or absence of an RF signal? A. Tone squelch B. Carrier squelch C. CTCSS D. Modulated carrier T2B03 (B)

Which of the following common problems might cause you to be able to hear but not access a repeater even when transmitting with the proper offset? A. The repeater receiver may require an audio tone burst for access B. The repeater receiver may require a CTCSS tone for access C. The repeater receiver may require a DCS tone sequence for access D. All of these choices are correct T2B04 (D)

Under what circumstances should you consider communicating via simplex rather that a repeater
A. When the stations can communicate directly without using a repeater B. Only when you have an endorsement for simplex operation on your license C. Only when third party traffic is not being passed D. Only if you have simplex modulation capability T2B12 (A)

Operating Basics

The Typical Ham Contact (QSO)
Greeting. Identify who is participating. Exchange information, generally taking turns. Salutations. End the conversation. Take a moment to mention “Q” signals and what QSO means. Now go over a fictitious ham contact and point out that it is the same as a telephone conversation except that there are a few procedural differences and some special vocabulary. Greeting: CQ CQ CQ this is WA8SME. Identify who is participating: WA8SME this is W6WBT Phil in Coleville calling. Exchange information: Hi Phil, you have a good signal today from Coleville, you’re running 59 here in Bridgeport…. Salutations: Well Phil, I better get to some chores before it rains. Thanks for the contact and I hope to hear you again. 73 for now. End the conversation: W6WBT this is WA8SME, clear.

Radio Manners Speak clearly and distinctly.
Communications is a giant “party line”. Choose your topics accordingly. Shared use of frequencies. Necessary, but not excessive, power levels. Ham radio is self-regulated. ARRL Official Observers. Logging QSL’s Just like using the phone, when you talk on the radio you are communicating only with verbal information, there is no non-verbal feedback or communication. (The majority of communication while face-to-face is in non-verbal form) Therefore you need to make sure you choose your words wisely and speak clearly (you won’t see the raised eyebrows that indicate that you are not being understood). Additionally there will be static and interfering signals that will possibly corrupt the information, and also language barriers and accents. There could be hundreds of people listening in, and the person you are talking to could be in another country with different values, therefore, choose your conversation topics wisely. Avoid controversial and or offensive topics. Avoid talking about religion, politics, off color content, dirty jokes and swearing. Some is just not acceptable, others are flat illegal. You will share the frequencies with other hams, and because of propagation, you may not hear both sides of a conversation going on. It is a good habit to get into to ask if the frequency is in use before you use it. Simply say, “Is this frequency in use?” and wait for a reply. If not reply then go ahead.

Operating Dos and Don’ts
Use of CQ versus “monitoring.” Use of phonetics. Taking turns and breaking-in. Station identification. Using repeaters. Using simplex. This is a good time to discuss some of the do’s and don’ts of operating a radio. Set up situations that the students could find themselves facing and discuss proper operating techniques for those situations. Mention some specifics such as pausing between transmissions on a repeater to allow for a breaking station, saying your call sign every ten minutes minimum, use standard phonetics to help facilitate communication during poor signal conditions, local repeater accepted practices, the difference between starting a contact using CQ or monitoring, etc. If the local repeater has a autopatch, go over how to access it and what are the accepted uses of the autopatch.

Additional Operating Topics
Q-Signals Originated in telegraphy as a short hand for common phrases Still used by hams, e.g. QRM, QSY Can be used if two hams don’t share a common language International Phonetic Alphabet Spoken words and callsigns can be misunderstood and sometimes need to be spelled out, the phonetic alphabet minimizes errors Learn the official one, ad hoc alphabets waste time or cause confusion A band plan is a way of organizing the use of radio frequencies for different modes or purposes Formal and legal plan. Informal – gentleman's agreement. Discuss with the students the need for band plans, to bring organization and prevent potential chaos, but also a band plan allows us to find other hams to contact. Pass out the band plan chart and explain how to extract information from the chart. There are actually two kinds of band plans. The formal or legal plan is the regulated authorization and regulated use of specific frequency ranges (bands) for licensed use. These plans are established by governmental regulatory agencies (like the FCC). Violating the formal band plan could result in legal sanctions. Give examples of the legal band plan. The informal band plan is an organization of operating activities based on accepted practice. These plans are not legally binding but good operator practice and radio manners encourage hams to follow the informal band plans. These informal band plans are established by precedence and accepted practice and also by major organizations like the ARRL. Informal band plans are voluntary, but the FCC expects that good amateur practice means we follow those band plans.

What is an appropriate way to call another station on a repeater if you know the other station's call sign? A. Say break, break then say the station's call sign B. Say the station's call sign then identify with your call sign C. Say CQ three times then the other station's call sign D. Wait for the station to call CQ then answer it T2A04 (B)

How should you respond to a station calling CQ?
A. Transmit CQ followed by the other station’s call sign B. Transmit your call sign followed by the other station’s call sign C. The other station’s call sign followed by your call sign D. Transmit a signal report followed by your call sign T2A05 (C)

What must an amateur operator do when making on-air transmissions to test equipment or antennas?
A. Properly identify the transmitting station B. Make test transmissions only after 10:00 p.m. local time C. Notify the FCC of the test transmission D. State the purpose of the test during the test procedure T2A06 (A)

Which of the following is true when making a test transmission?
A. Station identification is not required if the transmission is less than 15 seconds B. Station identification is not required if the transmission is less than 1 watt C. Station identification is required once an hour when the transmissions are for test purposes only D. Station identification is required at least every ten minutes during the test and at the end T2A07 (D)

What is the meaning of the procedural signal "CQ"?
A. Call on the quarter hour B. A new antenna is being tested (no station should answer) C. Only the called station should transmit D. Calling any station T2A08 (D)

Which of the following is a guideline to use when choosing an operating frequency for calling CQ?
A. Listen first to be sure that no one else is using the frequency B. Ask if the frequency is in use C. Make sure you are in your assigned band D. All of these choices are correct T2A12 (D)

What brief statement is often transmitted in place of "CQ" to indicate that you are listening on a repeater? A. The words "Hello test" followed by your call sign B. Your call sign C. The repeater call sign followed by your call sign D. The letters "QSY" followed by your call sign T2A09 (B)

Which of the following is an FCC rule regarding power levels used in the amateur bands, under normal, non-distress circumstances? A. There is no limit to power as long as there is no interference with other services B. No more than 200 watts PEP may be used C. Up to 1500 watts PEP may be used on any amateur frequency without restriction D. While not exceeding the maximum power permitted on a given band, use the minimum power necessary to carry out the desired communication T2A11 (D)

What popular operating activity involves contacting as many stations as possible during a specified period of time? A. Contesting B. Net operations C. Public service events D. Simulated emergency exercises T8C03 (A)

Which of the following is good procedure when contacting another station in a radio contest?
A. Be sure to sign only the last two letters of your call if there is a pileup calling the station B. Work the station twice to be sure that you are in his log C. Send only the minimum information needed for proper identification and the contest exchange D. All of these choices are correct T8C04 (C)

What is a grid locator? A. A letter-number designator assigned to a geographic location B. A letter-number designator assigned to an azimuth and elevation C. An instrument for neutralizing a final amplifier D. An instrument for radio direction finding T8C05 (A)

Which of the following applies when two stations transmitting on the same frequency interfere with each other? A. Common courtesy should prevail, but no one has absolute right to an amateur frequency B. Whoever has the strongest signal has priority on the frequency C. Whoever has been on the frequency the longest has priority on the frequency D. The station which has the weakest signal has priority on the frequency T2B08 (A)

Which Q signal indicates that you are receiving interference from other stations?
A. QRM B. QRN C. QTH D. QSB T2B10 (A)

Which Q signal indicates that you are changing frequency?
A. QRU B. QSY C. QSL D. QRZ T2B11 (B)

What is a band plan, beyond the privileges established by the FCC?
A. A voluntary guideline for using different modes or activities within an amateur band B. A mandated list of operating schedules C. A list of scheduled net frequencies D. A plan devised by a club to indicate frequency band usage T2A10 (A)

Who selects a Frequency Coordinator?
A. The FCC Office of Spectrum Management and Coordination Policy B. The local chapter of the Office of National Council of Independent Frequency Coordinators C. Amateur operators in a local or regional area whose stations are eligible to be auxiliary or repeater stations D. FCC Regional Field Office T1A09 (C) [97.3(a)(22)]

What is the national calling frequency for FM simplex operations in the 70 cm band?
A MHz B MHz C MHz D MHz T2A02 (D)

Emergency Communications

EMCOMM Organizations Radio Amateur Civil Emergency Service (RACES).
Supports governmental entities during civil emergencies. National in scope. Amateur Radio Emergency Service (ARES). Supports non-governmental organizations. ARRL program; local/regional in scope. ARES supports Red Cross, Salvation Army and other NGOs. RACES requires activation by competent authority and requires some training in ICS/NIMS (Fed) & SEMS (CA). Many ARES and RACES organizations are combined in one group.

Emergency Declarations
FCC may declare a Temporary State of Communications Emergency. Includes details of conditions and rules to be followed. Specifics communicated through web sites and ARRL bulletins, the NTS, and on-the-air. Avoid operating on restricted frequencies unless engaged in relief efforts. Discuss with the students how this works, hurricane relief operations are the most common communication emergency that they might encounter. Give them the frequencies used and encourage them to listen in on the relief efforts as a learning exercise.

Making and Answering Distress Calls
Rule number one – speak in plain language! Mayday (voice); SOS (Morse code) are flags Identify Give location State the situation Describe assistance required Provide other important information Again, role playing will help to illustrate the major concepts in making and answering a distress call.

Nets Net is short for “Network.”
Share and exchange information in an organized and efficient way with accuracy. Traffic refers to formal messages that are relayed via ham radio. Formal structure – National Traffic System (NTS). Procedures. Accountability. Public Service Nets – training for emergency nets. Training for ham operators as well as supported emergency managers. Emergency Nets. Discuss with the students the purpose of nets and some of the nets that are in your area. Invite the students to listen into the nets during the course of the class. Discuss here the purpose and theme of some of the social nets in your area.

Net Structure Net Control Station (NCS).
Traffic cop that controls the flow of information. Check-in and check-out procedures. Communications discipline vital. Learn and follow procedures. Speak only when directed, and only to whom directed. Discuss with the students the structure and general operating procedures of a net. Emphasize the need for communication discipline, particularly for traffic and emergency nets. (Social nets are a different matter) A little role playing may help to demonstrate the point. You might even consider using HTs on a simplex frequency to demonstrate net check-in/check-out procedures and even run through a short script of passing some traffic during a simulated emergency net.

A. When operating a RACES station
When do the FCC rules NOT apply to the operation of an amateur station? A. When operating a RACES station B. When operating under special FEMA rules C. When operating under special ARES rules D. Never, FCC rules always apply Practical answer: Carry extra batteries. They are smaller than battery cables and less trouble to change. Car battery is 12V, which is the only reason you could charge another battery. T2C01 (D)

What do RACES and ARES have in common?
A. They represent the two largest ham clubs in the United States B. Both organizations broadcast road and weather information C. Neither may handle emergency traffic supporting public service agencies D. Both organizations may provide communications during emergencies Definitely more than one. A battery pack on an HT may last 1 day if heavy use and could be less. Good idea to have at least 3-4 spare batteries; also a battery pack that will accept regular AA/AAA baterries which is compatible with your HT. T2C04 (D)

What is the Amateur Radio Emergency Service (ARES)?
A. Licensed amateurs who have voluntarily registered their qualifications and equipment for communications duty in public service B. Licensed amateurs who are members of the military and who voluntarily agreed to provide message handling services in the case of emergency C. A training program that provides licensing courses for those interested in obtaining an amateur license to use during emergencies D. A training program that certifies amateur operators for membership in the Radio Amateur Civil Emergency Service Definitely more than one. A battery pack on an HT may last 1 day if heavy use and could be less. Good idea to have at least 3-4 spare batteries; also a battery pack that will accept regular AA/AAA baterries which is compatible with your HT. T2C12 (A)

Which of the following describes the Radio Amateur Civil Emergency Service (RACES)?
A. A radio service using amateur frequencies for emergency management or civil defense communications B. A radio service using amateur stations for emergency management or civil defense communications C. An emergency service using amateur operators certified by a civil defense organization as being enrolled in that organization D. All of these choices are correct T2C05 (D)

Which of the following is an accepted practice to get the immediate attention of a net control station when reporting an emergency? A. Repeat the words SOS three times followed by the call sign of the reporting station B. Press the push-to-talk button three times C. Begin your transmission with “Priority” or “Emergency” followed by your call sign D. Play a pre-recorded emergency alert tone followed by your call sign This is very important in some EOCs where stations are crammed together and there is background noise from everyone else in the EOC. T2C06 (C)

Which of the following is an accepted practice for an amateur operator who has checked into an emergency traffic net? A. Provided that the frequency is quiet, announce the station call sign and location every 5 minutes B. Move 5 kHz away from the net's frequency and use high power to ask other hams to keep clear of the net frequency C. Remain on frequency without transmitting until asked to do so by the net control station D. All of the choices are correct T2C07 (C)

Which of the following is a characteristic of good emergency traffic handling?
A. Passing messages exactly as received B. Making decisions as to whether or not messages should be relayed or delivered C. Communicating messages to the news media for broadcast outside the disaster area D. All of these choices are correct T2C08 (A)

What should be done to insure that voice message traffic containing proper names and unusual words are copied correctly by the receiving station? A. The entire message should be repeated at least four times B. Such messages must be limited to no more than 10 words C. Such words and terms should be spelled out using a standard phonetic alphabet D. All of these choices are correct T2C03 (C)

Are amateur station control operators ever permitted to operate outside the frequency privileges of their license class? A. No B. Yes, but only when part of a FEMA emergency plan C. Yes, but only when part of a RACES emergency plan D. Yes, but only if necessary in situations involving the immediate safety of human life or protection of property T2C09 (D)

What is the preamble in a formal traffic message?
A. The first paragraph of the message text B. The message number C. The priority handling indicator for the message D. The information needed to track the message as it passes through the amateur radio traffic handling system T2C10 (D)

What is meant by the term "check" in reference to a formal traffic message?
A. The check is a count of the number of words or word equivalents in the text portion of the message B. The check is the value of a money order attached to the message C. The check is a list of stations that have relayed the message D. The check is a box on the message form that tells you the message was received T2C11 (A)

Special Communication Modes
If you can, give demonstrations of these new and emerging technologies and communication capabilities. Be brief in your demonstrations, the students can get into more in-depth information outside of class or during specialized demonstration periods.

Transmitting Data Data is made up of binary bits 1 and 0.
On and off states Modems translate the data into a format capable modulating a carrier wave. A terminal node controller (TNC) is a specialized modem used in ham radio. There are many more kinds of modems developed as data transmission technology advances.

Digital Techniques Radio Teletype (RTTY). AMTOR and PACTOR.
Single letters sent as they are typed. AMTOR and PACTOR. Small grouping of letters sent with error correction. Packet and Packet Networks. Groups (packets) of collected data sent with error correction and automatic forwarding. More complex modulation techniques. PSK31 (a type based on Phase Shift Keying) MFSK (a type based on Frequency Shift Keying) Click the mouse button to hear examples of the three satellite contacts. Discuss with the students that digital techniques are basically sending information via computer keyboard. There are numerous modes within the digital techniques, briefly describe the major modes and the virtues of each.

Amateur Radio and the Internet
Echolink Connects two amateur stations or repeaters via Internet IRLP Also connects two amateur stations or repeaters via Internet VoIP Voice over Internet Protocol Gateways System that links to the Internet

APRS Automatic Packet Reporting System (APRS).
Packet based Global Positioning System (GPS) position reporting. Uses a packet-like digipeater system to create an APRS network (also Internet connected).

Other Special Modes Video Slow Scan TV (SSTV). Amateur TV (ATV).
Sending snap-shot pictures. Amateur TV (ATV). Similar to commercial TV imagery. Click on the slide to hear an SSTV signal

Other Special Modes Meteor Scatter. Moonbounce.
Reflecting radio signals off of the ionized trail left by meteors. Moonbounce. Reflecting radio signals off the surface of the moon.

Other Special Modes Radio Control (RC). Telecommand. 50 MHz band.

What is the FCC Part 97 definition of telecommand?
A. An instruction bulleetin issued by the FCC B. A one-way radio transmission of measurements at a distance from the measuring instrument C. A one-way transmission to initiate, modify or terminate functions of a device at a distance D. An instruction from a VEC T1A13 (C)

What is the FCC Part 97 definition of telemetry?
A. An information bulletin issued by the FCC B. A one-way transmission to initiate, modify or terminate functions of a device at a distance C. A one-way transmission of measurements at a distance from the measuring instrument D. An information bulletin from a VEC T1A07 (C) [97.3(a)(45)]

When is willful interference to other amateur radio stations permitted?
A. Only if the station being interfered with is expressing extreme religious or political views B. At no time C. Only during a contest D. At any time, amateurs are not protected from willful interference T1A11 (B)

Which of the following is an example of a digital communications method?
A. Packet B. PSK31 C. MFSK D. All of these choices are correct T8D01 (D)

How is a computer’s sound card used when conducting digital communications using a computer?
A. The sound card communicates between the computer CPU and the video display B. The sound card records the audio frequency for video display C. The sound card provides audio to the microphone input and converts received audio to digital form D. All of these choices are correct T4A07 (C)

What does the term APRS mean?
A. Automatic Packet Reporting System B. Associated Public Radio Station C. Auto Planning Radio Set-up D. Advanced Polar Radio System T8D02 (A)

Which of the following would be connected between a transceiver and computer in a packet radio station? A. Transmatch B. Mixer C. Terminal node controller D. Antenna T4A06 (C)

Which of the following devices provides data to the transmitter when sending automatic position reports from a mobile amateur radio station? A. The vehicle speedometer B. A WWV receiver C. A connection to a broadcast FM sub-carrier receiver D. A Global Positioning System receiver T8D03 (D)

Which of the following is an application of APRS (Automatic Packet Reporting System)?
A. Providing real time tactical digital communications in conjunction with a map showing the location of stations B. Showing automatically the number of packets transmitted via PACTOR during a specific time interval C. Providing voice over Internet connection between repeaters D. Providing information on the number of stations signed into a repeater T8D05 (A)

What is meant by Voice Over Internet Protocol (VoIP) as used in amateur radio?
A. A set of rules specifying how to identify your station when linked over the Internet to another station B. A set of guidelines for working DX during contests using Internet access C. A technique for measuring the modulation quality of a transmitter using remote sites monitored via the Internet D. A method of delivering voice communications over the Internet using digital techniques T8C12 (D)

How might you obtain a list of active nodes that use VoIP?
A. From the FCC Rulebook B. From your local emergency coordinator C. From a repeater directory D. From the local repeater frequency coordinator T8C09 (C)

What is the Internet Radio Linking Project (IRLP)?
A. A technique to connect amateur radio systems, such as repeaters, via the Internet using using Voice Over Internet Protocol B. A system for providing access to websites via amateur radio C. A system for informing amateurs in real time of the frequency of active DX stations D. A technique for measuring signal strength of an amateur transmitter via the internet T8C13 (A)

How do you select a specific IRLP node when using a portable transceiver?
A. Choose a specific CTCSS tone B. Choose the correct DSC tone C. Access the repeater autopatch D. Use the keypad to transmit the IRLP node ID T8C10 (D)

What name is given to an amateur radio station that is used to connect other amateur stations to the Internet? A. A gateway B. A repeater C. A digipeater D. A beacon T8C11 (A)

What type of transmission is indicated by the term NTSC?
A. A Normal Transmission mode in Static Circuit B. A special mode for earth satellite uplink C. An analog fast scan color TV signal D. A frame compression scheme for TV signals T8D04 (C)

What does the abbreviation PSK mean?
A. Pulse Shift Keying B. Phase Shift Keying C. Packet Short Keying D. Phased Slide Keying T8D06 (B)

What is PSK31? A. A high-rate data transmission mode
B. A method of reducing noise interference to FM signals C. A method of compressing digital television signals D. A low-rate data transmission mode T8D07 (D)

Which of the following may be included in packet transmissions?
A. A check sum which permits error detection B. A header which contains the call sign of the station to which the information is being sent C. Automatic repeat request in case of error D. All of these choices are correct T8D08 (D)

What is an ARQ transmission system?
A. A special transmission format limited to video signals B. A system used to encrypt command signals to an amateur radio satellite C. A digital scheme whereby the receiving station detects errors and sends a request to the sending station to retransmit the information D. A method of compressing the data in a message so more information can be sent in a shorter time T8D11 (C)

What is the maximum power allowed when transmitting telecommand signals to radio controlled models?
A. 500 milliwatts B. 1 watt C. 25 watts D watts T8C07 (B)

What is required in place of on-air station identification when sending signals to a radio control model using amateur frequencies? A. Voice identification must be transmitted every 10 minutes B. Morse code ID must be sent once per hour C. A label indicating the licensee’s name, call sign and address must be affixed to the transmitter D. A flag must be affixed to the transmitter antenna with the station call sign in 1 inch high letters or larger T8C08 (C)

What code is used when sending CW in the amateur bands?
A. Baudot B. Hamming C. International Morse D. Gray T8D09 (C)

Which of the following can be used to transmit CW in the amateur bands?
A. Straight Key B. Electronic Keyer C. Computer Keyboard D. All of these choices are correct T8D10 (D)

Amateur Satellites or Space Station
Types Orbiting Satellites Carrying Amateur Radio (OSCAR) International Space Station. Bands 144 MHz/440 MHz available on a number of satellites Modes FM Voice and Digital Packet Analog (SSB and CW) Some Terms Beacon = Signal transmitted by the satellite containing information about the satellite Doppler Shift = Frequency shift due to relative velocity changes as the satellite orbits LEO = Low Earth Orbit Spin Fading = Signal strength changes due to rotation of the satellite Satellite operating might interest some hams of the hams. Briefly describe the station equipment required to effectively operate through a satellite and the type of satellite modes available. Discuss some of the technical challenges that have to be considered to operate satellites; finding and tracking the satellite, Doppler compensation, working with transponder equipment, etc.

Who may be the control operator of a station communicating through an amateur satellite or space station? A. Only an Amateur Extra Class operator B. A General Class licensee or higher licensee who has a satellite operator certification C. Only an Amateur Extra Class operator who is also an AMSAT member D. Any amateur whose license privileges allow them to transmit on the satellite uplink frequency T8B01 (D)

How much transmitter power should be used on the uplink frequency of an amateur satellite or space station? A. The maximum power of your transmitter B. The minimum amount of power needed to complete the contact C. No more than half the rating of your linear amplifier D. Never more than 1 watt T8B02 (B)

Which of the following are provided by satellite tracking programs?
A. Maps showing the real-time position of the satellite track over the earth B. The time, azimuth, and elevation of the start, maximum altitude, and end of a pass C. The apparent frequency of the satellite transmission, including effects of Doppler shift D. All of these answers are correct T8B03 (A)

Which of the following are inputs to a satellite tracking program?
A. The weight of the satellite B. The Keplerian elements C. The last observed time of zero Doppler shift D. All of these answers are correct T8B06 (B)

Which amateur stations may make contact with an amateur station on the International Space Station using 2 meter and 70 cm band amateur radio frequencies? A. Only members of amateur radio clubs at NASA facilities B. Any amateur holding a Technician or higher class license C. Only the astronaut's family members who are hams D. You cannot talk to the ISS on amateur radio frequencies T8B04 (B)

What is a satellite beacon?
A. The primary transmit antenna on the satellite B. An indicator light that that shows where to point your antenna C. A reflective surface on the satellite D. A transmission from a space station that contains information about a satellite T8B05 (D)

With regard to satellite communications, what is Doppler shift?
A. A change in the satellite orbit B. A mode where the satellite receives signals on one band and transmits on another C. An observed change in signal frequency caused by relative motion between the satellite and the earth station D. A special digital communications mode for some satellites T8B07 (C)

What is meant by the statement that a satellite is operating in mode U/V?
A. The satellite uplink is in the 15 meter band and the downlink is in the 10 meter band B. The satellite uplink is in the 70 cm band and the downlink is in the 2 meter band C. The satellite operates using ultraviolet frequencies D. The satellite frequencies are usually variable T8B08 (B)

What causes spin fading when referring to satellite signals?
A. Circular polarized noise interference radiated from the sun B. Rotation of the satellite and its antennas C. Doppler shift of the received signal D. Interfering signals within the satellite uplink band T8B09 (B)

What do the initials LEO tell you about an amateur satellite?
A. The satellite battery is in Low Energy Operation mode B. The satellite is performing a Lunar Ejection Orbit maneuver C. The satellite is in a Low Earth Orbit D. The satellite uses Light Emitting Optics T8B10 (C)

What is a commonly used method of sending signals to and from a digital satellite?
A. USB AFSK B. PSK31 C. FM Packet D. WSJT T8B11 (C)

Amateur Licensing & Privileges

Licensing Authority Federal Communications Commission
Located in Gettysburg, PA. Amateur Radio operations covered by FCC rules published in Part 97 of Title 47 – Code of Federal Regulations. Use Part 97 for short During this hour you will cover material that is less than stimulating but very important. Discuss the roll of the FCC in management of the radio frequency spectrum in the United States and how ham radio fits into the big picture. Point out the official regulations that authorizes and manages ham radio operations but also point out that the students will hear a lot about Part 97 rules, and that this is just a short hand reference to the rules section that pertains specifically to ham radio.

Why is There Ham Radio? Providing emergency communication capability.
Advancement of the art and science of radio. Advance communication and technical skills of radio. Provide a trained reservoir of operators, technicians, and electronics experts. Promote and enhance international goodwill. Discuss the mission of ham radio from your point of view.

Some Definitions Amateur Service – no pecuniary interest (private and personal, non commercial). Amateur Operator – the person holding authorization (license) to operate an Amateur Radio station. Amateur Station – equipment capable of transmitting on frequencies authorized for Amateur Service. Some of this material may seem to be self evident but make sure that everyone understands the subtle differences between amateur radio and the other radio services. Particularly stress the non-commercial nature of ham radio. The lines here are becoming increasingly blurred with more professionals joining the amateur radio community as a way of providing emergency communications capabilities for their organizations.

The Amateur License No age limit or citizenship restrictions.
One exception – foreign representatives. License actually contains two parts. Operator License. Station License (the Call Sign). Three levels of operator privileges: Technician, General, Amateur Extra. Discuss the equal opportunity aspects of ham radio, virtually anyone can obtain a license The license actually has two parts, the operator part allows the holder to operate an amateur radio station, the station part authorizes the physical station to be operated. Kind of like your driver’s license and the license plates on the vehicle.

Examinations Preparation Taking the exam Volunteer Examiners (VEs).
Study the content. Question Pool. Taking the exam Proctored exam. Multiple choice. What the fee pays for. Volunteer Examiners (VEs). Volunteer Examiner Coordinators (VECs). Most of this material has already been covered at some point during the first few hours of the course, but this is a good place to tie it all together. Emphasize the purpose of the exam fee and what it is used for. Also emphasize that the actual ham license is free. This is also a good time to mention how examinations are managed and what VEs and VECs are. Perhaps the VE team members could be present during this time to introduce themselves. Have them explain the forms that need to be filled out and have examples of the 605 and CSCE form.

License Term and Renewal
The license is free and good for 10 years. Renewable within 2 years of the expiration date. Some personal identification information is required. Tax ID (Social Security number). Current Mailing Address. Federal Registration Number (FRN). Security of personal information is important, but the government needs to know certain things about you before the license can be issued. Social security numbers are one area that makes people uncomfortable giving up. Explain that after the initial license is issued (and the SSAN is required for that first issuance) that an FRN number will be assigned and the sensitive SSAN will not be required for further interaction with the FCC. The student can wait for the FCC to issue an FRN when they process the first license application, or if the student desires, they and use the FCC Universal Licensing System web site to obtain their own FRN and then use that FRN on the 605 form. Assure the student that the VEC system is pretty secure and there is little risk of sensitive personal information getting into the wrong hands.

Responsibilities of Licensee
Prevent unauthorized operation of your station. Provide personal information as required – keep a current mailing address on file. Make your station available for FCC inspection upon request. The ham radio operators responsibilities might seem intimidating to the new ham, but assure them that it is not a big deal. Give them examples how they can prevent unauthorized operation of their stations (remove the microphone when they are not physically present, etc.) Updating mailing addresses is probably the area where most do not comply, but making the change in the records is very painless and tell them how to do it. Finally, operating a ham radio is a privilege, not a right. Open to inspection is just a requirement to the authorization. The FCC will not inspect your station without probably cause. Don’t do anything wrong and you’ll be okay.

FCC ULS Web Site www.wireless.fcc.gov/uls
Register for on-line access to your license information. Make changes to your address and other information. Renew your license. Search for other station information. The FCC web site is fairly easy to use once you get the hang of it and it allows the ham to do most if not all the required actions to maintain a current license themselves. The FRN is the key that unlocks those doors. If you have the capability, you could demonstrate accessing the ULS live during the class to illustrate how it can be used. As a suggestion, I write my FRN on my station license so that I can easily find it when I need it.

Which of the following is a purpose of the Amateur Radio Service as stated in the FCC rules and regulations? A. Providing personal radio communications for as many citizens as possible B. Providing communications for international non-profit organizations C. Advancing skills in the technical and communication phases of the radio art D. All of these choices are correct T1A01 (C)

Which of the following is a purpose of the Amateur Radio Service rules and regulations as defined by the FCC? A. Enhancing international goodwill B. Providing inexpensive communication for local emergency organizations C. Training of operators in military radio operating procedures D. All of these choices are correct T1A05 (A)

Which part of the FCC regulations contains the rules governing the Amateur Radio Service?
A. Part 73 B. Part 95 C. Part 90 D. Part 97 T1A03 (D)

For which license classes are new licenses currently available from the FCC?
A. Novice, Technician, General, Advanced B. Technician, Technician Plus, General, Advanced C. Novice, Technician Plus, General, Advanced D. Technician, General, Amateur Extra T1C13 (D)

What may result when correspondence from the FCC is returned as undeliverable because the grantee failed to provide the correct mailing address? A. Fine or imprisonment B. Revocation of the station license or suspension of the operator license C. Require the licensee to be re-examined D. A reduction of one rank in operator class T1C07 (B)

What is the normal term for an FCC-issued primary station/operator radio license grant?
A. Five years B. Life C. Ten years D. Twenty years T1C08 (C)

What is the grace period following the expiration of an amateur license within which the license may be renewed? A. Two years B. Three years C. Five years D. Ten years T1C09 (A)

How soon after passing the examination for your first amateur radio license may you operate a transmitter on an amateur service frequency? A. Immediately B. 30 days after the test date C. As soon as your operator/station license grant appears in the FCC’s license database D. You must wait until you receive your license in the mail from the FCC T1C10 (C)

If your license has expired and is still within the allowable grace period, may you continue to operate a transmitter on amateur service frequencies? A. No, transmitting is not allowed until the FCC license database shows that the license has been renewed B. Yes, but only if you identify using the suffix GP C. Yes, but only during authorized nets D. Yes, for up to two years T1C11 (A)

When must the station licensee make the station and its records available for FCC inspection?
A. Any time ten days after notification by the FCC of such an inspection B. Any time upon request by an FCC representative C. Only after failing to comply with an FCC notice of violation D. Only when presented with a valid warrant by an FCC official or government agent T1F13(B)

Who may select a desired call sign under the vanity call sign rules?
A. Only licensed amateurs with general or extra class licenses B. Only licensed amateurs with an extra class license C. Only an amateur licensee who has been licensed continuously for more than 10 years D. Any licensed amateur TIC12(D)

Which of the following is a vanity call sign which a technician class amateur operator might select if available? A. K1XXX B. KA1X C. W1XX D. All of these choices are correct TIC05(A)

Who may select a vanity call sign for a club station?
A. Any Extra Class mamber of the club B. Any member of the club C. Any officer of the club D. Only the person named as trustee on the club station license grant T1C14(D)

How many persons are required to be members of a club for a club station license to be issued by the FCC? A. At least 5 B. At least 4 C. A trustee and 2 officers D. At least 2 T1F12 (B)

What can you do with a Technician Class License?
Some HF privileges 80M (limited CW) 40M (limited CW) 15M (limited CW) 10M (limited CW/Data/Phone) All from VHF through EHF 50 MHz and up VHF/UHF table to right Go over the frequency authorizations for the technician class. Review the band plan and hand out a band plan chart and show the students how to read it and extract required information. Review with the students how the references to band a frequency are used sometimes interchangeably. Remember, bands are frequency ranges that have the same characteristics. The band identification is like a city name, the frequency is like a specific street address that you want to visit. “Let’s meet on 6 meters tonight.” “No, my 6 meter antenna is down right now, how about 2?” “Okay, 2 meters, how about ?”

Emission Privileges: Review with the students the different emission types, you probably have talked about this already with them. Point out that there may be restrictions, either by regulation or by gentlemen's agreement, on where certain emission types are authorized. This information is on the band plan chart.

Up to 1500 watts peak envelope power (PEP). Will generally require an external amplifier to achieve these power levels. In some special cases or bands, power is more restricted. Still required to use the minimum power needed to get the job done. Details about power authorizations can be found in FCC Rule Book. Maximum power is 1500 watts PEP for Technicians. Technicians are limited to 200 watts PEP on the HF bands. Technicians have power restrictions on MHz, on 70-cm adjacent to military installations.

Primary and Secondary Allocations
Some authorized amateur frequencies are shared. Primary Users Must be given precedence by secondary users Secondary Users Amateurs are secondary on MHz, MHz, MHz, MHz Primary users are protected from interference form other stations. Secondary users can use the frequencies if they don’t cause interference. If hams are secondary users of shared frequencies (which is the case most of the time), they must yield the use of the frequencies to the primary users if they are present. If you location is near the Canadian border, emphasize the restrictions with the “Line-A” area on 70-cms.

Which frequency is within the 6-meter band?
A MHz B MHz C MHz D MHz T1B03 (B)

Which amateur band are you using when transmitting on 146.52 MHz?
A. 2 meter band B. 20 meter band C. 14 meter band D. 6 meter band T1B04 (A)

Which 70-centimeter frequency is authorized to a Technician class license holder operating in ITU Region 2? A MHz B MHz C MHz D MHz T1B05 (C)

Which 23 cm frequency is authorized to a Technician Class licensee?
A MHz B MHz C MHz D MHz T1B06 (B)

What amateur band are you using if you are operating on 223.50 MHz?
A. 15 meter band B. 10 meter band C. 2 meter band D meter band T1B07 (D)

Which of the following is a result of the fact that the amateur service is secondary in some portions of the 70 cm band? A. U.S. amateurs may find non-amateur stations in the bands, and must avoid interfering with them B. U.S. amateurs must give foreign amateur stations priority in those portions C. International communications are not permitted on 70 cm D. Digital transmissions are not permitted on 70 cm T1B08 (A)

Why should you not set your transmit frequency to be exactly at the edge of an amateur band or sub-band? A. To allow for calibration error in the transmitter frequency display B. So that modulation sidebands do not extend beyond the band edge C. To allow for transmitter frequency drift D. All of these choices are correct T1B09 (D)

Which of the bands above 30 MHz that are available to Technician Class operators have mode-restricted sub-bands? A. The 6 meter, 2 meter, and 70 cm bands B. The 2 meter and 13 cm bands C. The 6 meter, 2 meter, and 1.25 meter bands D. The 2 meter and 70 cm bands T1B10 (C)

What emission modes are permitted in the mode-restricted sub-bands at 50.0 to 50.1 MHz and to MHz? A. CW only B. CW and RTTY C. SSB only D. CW and SSB T1B11 (A)

Which emission may be used between 219 and 220 MHz?
A. Spread spectrum B. Data C. SSB voice D. Fast-scan television T1B13 (B)

Which of the following is true of the use of SSB phone in amateur bands above 50 MHz?
A. It is permitted only by holders of a General Class or higher license B. It is permitted only on repeaters C. It is permitted in at least some portion of all the amateur bands above 50 MHz D. It is permitted only when power is limited to no more than 100 watts T2B13 (C)

Amateur Radio - Internationally
International Telecommunication Union (ITU). Regions 1, 2 and 3. CONUS hams are in Region 2. Reciprocal operating authorizations. There are times when there are restrictions on certain countries that we can contact. Briefly discuss the purpose of the ITU and how the FCC fits into the big picture. There are some differences in frequency authorizations and permitted modes based on ITU rules and regions. If the students are going to operate in a different region, it is important that they review the rules for that region. Also discuss with the students that this is why they may hear voice operations where the US is only authorized CW or data operations. Watch the dial! Especially when attempting to contact an English speaking ham, they may be from country that is authorized voice privileges where the US ham is restricted to code or data.

What is the ITU? A. An agency of the United States Department of Telecommunications Management B. A United Nations agency for information and communication technology issues C. An independent frequency coordination agency D. A department of the FCC T1B01 (B)

Why are the frequency assignments for some U. S
Why are the frequency assignments for some U.S. Territories different from those in the 50 U.S. states? A. Some U.S. territories are located in ITU regions other than region 2 B. Territorial governments are allowed to select their own frequency allocations C. Territorial frequency allocations must also include those of adjacent countries D. Any territory that was in existence before the ratification of the Communications Act of 1934 is exempt from FCC frequency regulations T1B02 (A)

Why are the frequency assignments for U. S
Why are the frequency assignments for U.S. stations operating maritime mobile not the same everywhere in the world? A. Amateur maritime mobile stations in international waters must conform to the frequency assignments of the country nearest to their vessel B. Amateur frequency assignments can vary among the three ITU regions C. Frequency assignments are determined by the captain of the vessel D. Amateur frequency assignments are different in each of the 90 ITU zones T1B12 (B)

What types of international communications are permitted by an FCC-licensed amateur station?
A. Communications incidental to the purposes of the amateur service and remarks of a personal character B. Communications incidental to conducting business or remarks of a personal nature C. Only communications incidental to contest exchanges, all other communications are prohibited D. Any communications that would be permitted by an international broadcast station T1C03 (A)

When are you allowed to operate your amateur station in a foreign country?
A. When the foreign country authorizes it B. When there is a mutual agreement allowing third party communications C. When authorization permits amateur communications in a foreign language D. When you are communicating with non-licensed individuals in another country T1C04 (A)

What must you do if you are operating on the 23 cm band and learn that you are interfering with a radiolocation station outside the United States? A. Stop operating or take steps to eliminate the harmful interference B. Nothing, because this band is allocated exclusively to the amateur service C. Establissh contact with the radiolocation station and ask them to change frequency D. Change to CW mode, because this would not likely cause interference T1A14 (A)

B. From within any country that is a member of the United Nations
From which of the following locations may an FCC-licensed amateur station transmit, in addition to places where the FCC regulates communications? A. From within any country that belongs to the International Telecommunications Union B. From within any country that is a member of the United Nations C. From anywhere within in ITU Regions 2 and 3 D. From any vessel or craft located in international waters and documented or registered in the United States T1C06 (D)

With which countries are FCC-licensed amateur stations prohibited from exchanging communications?
A. Any country whose administration has notified the ITU that it objects to such communications B. Any country whose administration has notified the ARRL that it objects to such communications C. Any country engaged in hostilities with another country D. Any country in violation of the War Powers Act of 1934 T1D01 (A)

To which foreign stations do the FCC rules authorize the transmission of non-emergency third party communications? A. Any station whose government permits such communications B. Those in ITU Region 2 only C. Those in ITU Regions 2 and 3 only D. Those in ITU Region 3 only T1F11 (A)

Short Break 10 Minute Stretch Open Q&A

Amateur Responsibilities

Most Important Information
Control operator responsibilities. The FCC’s primary concern is that transmissions are made only under the control of a licensed operator. Control operator – the licensed amateur responsible for making sure transmissions comply with FCC rules.

Control Operator Must have a valid FCC issued Amateur Radio license.
Station must operate within the authorization of the control operator’s license. Control operator must be present at the control point of the station (the on-off switch) or remotely connected by a control link. The control operator must have a license. This does not mean the highest class license of the group. For kids, if they are licensed and their parents are not, the kids are the control operators not their parents. If an Extra Class and a Tech Class ham are operating a station and the Tech is the control operator, then the station is restricted to Tech privileges. If the hams want to use the Extra privileges, than the Extra Class ham is the control operator. The control operator doesn’t necessarily mean that they are the owners of the station. The control operator must be in a position to stop improper operation of the station. In other words, they must be in a position to turn the transmitter off to prevent improper transmissions…this is the on-off switch in its simplest terms. The control operator of a repeater must be able to turn off the repeater if there are improper transmissions being made, this is usually done by remote control.

Guest Operations Non-licensed people can use a ham radio but only when a control operator is present. The control operator is solely responsible for station operation. Licensed guests can use the ham radio. In this case, both the control operator and the guest ham are responsible for station operation. A good example to use here to help explain guest operations is to set up a scenario of a young ham allowing his un-licensed parent to use the HT, or the young ham to allow his/her un-licensed teacher or classmates to talk an their HT. Other good examples to use here is un-licensed emergency responders using an HT during an EMCOMM scenario to communicate during an emergency.

Remote and Automatic Control
Some stations, repeaters and beacons operate without the control operator physically present at the control point. These stations must still comply with control operator stipulations. Local. Remote. Automatic. Simply stress that regardless of the technical situation, the control operator must still be able to turn off the station to prevent improper transmissions. Remote control means that there is some sort of control link that allows the control operator to take action. These links can be independent radio links, telephone or Internet lines. Automatic controls are usually computers that have safeguards programmed into the controller to prevent improper operation. You could mention the time-out timer on a repeater as an example.

When is an amateur station permitted to transmit without a control operator?
A. When using automatic control, such as in the case of a repeater B. When the station licensee is away and another licensed amateur is using the station C. When the transmitting station is an auxiliary station D. Never T1E01 (D)

Who must designate the station control operator?
A. The station licensee B. The FCC C. The frequency coordinator D. The ITU T1E03 (A)

Who may a station licensee designate to be the control operator of an amateur station?
A. Any U.S. citizen or registered alien B. Any family member of the station licensee C. Any person over the age of 18 D. Only a person for whom an amateur operator/primary station license grant appears in the FCC database or who is authorized for alien reciprocal operation T1E02 (D)

When, under normal circumstancess, may a Technician Class licensee be the control operator of a station operating in an exclusive Extra Class operator segment of the amateur bands? A. At no time B. When operating a special event station C. As part of a multi-operator contest team D. When using a club station whose trustee is an Extra Class operator licensee T1E12 (A)

What determines the transmitting privileges of an amateur station?
A. The frequency authorized by the frequency coordinator B. The class of operator license held by the station licensee C. The highest class of operator license held by anyone on the premises D. The class of operator license held by the control operator T1E04 (D)

What is an amateur station control point?
A. The location of the station’s transmitting antenna B. The location of the station transmitting apparatus C. The location at which the control operator function is performed D. The mailing address of the station licensee T1E05 (C)

Under what type of control do APRS network digipeaters operate?
A. Automatic B. Remote C. Local D. Manual T1E06 (A)

When the control operator is not the station licensee, who is responsible for the proper operation of the station? A. All licensed amateurs who are present at the operation B. Only the station licensee C. Only the control operator D. The control operator and the station licensee are equally responsible T1E07 (D)

Which of the following is an example of automatic control?
A. Repeater operation B. Controlling the station over the internet C. Using a computer or other device to automatically send CW D. Using a computer or other device to automatically identify T1E08 (A)

What type of control is being used when the control operator is at the control pointt?
A. Radio control B. Unattended control C. Automatic control D. Local control T1E09 (D)

Which of the following is an example of remote control as defined in Part 97?
A. Repeater operation B. Operating a station over the Internet C. Controlling a model aircraft, boat or car by amateur radio D. All of these choices are correct T1E10 (B)

Who does the FCC presume to be the control operator of an amateur station, unless documentation to the contrary is in the station records? A. The station custodian B. The third party participant C. The person operating the station equipment D. The station licensee T1E11 (D)

What type of amateur station simultaneously retransmits the signal of another amateur station on a different channel or channels? A. Beacon station B. Earth station C. Repeater station D. Message forwarding station T1F09 C

Who is accountable should a repeater inadvertently retransmit communications that violate the FCC rules? A. The control operator of the originating station B. The control operator of the repeater C. The owner of the repeater D. Both the originating station and the repeater owner T1F10 (A)

Call Signs US call signs begin with: K, N, W, and A.
Include a single US call sign district: 0-9 Call sign formats: 1x1 (special event) 1x2 or 2x1 1x3 2x2 2x3 Pass out a US map with the call sign districts. Discuss the structure of US call signs and what the students can expect for their first call signs. Have on hand some QSL cards. Use them to illustrate different US call signs. Also discuss the call sign structure for different countries and stress that the beginning character can be used generally to determine the country of the station being contacted.

Call Signs Portable – operating away from primary station location.
If in the different call sign district add: “portable 6” if voice. /6 if Morse code or digital. Not required, just nice to do. If recent upgrade add “AG” or “AE.” Special call signs Club and special event call signs. Vanity call signs. Here you can discuss some of the things that students may hear when operations are portable. Though not used as much any more, they might come across it sometime. Point out that when they upgrade, the new privileges are authorized immediately, they just need to add the AG or AE if they are going to use the new authorized privileges before the upgrade is posted in the FCC database.

Station Identification (ID)
Normal ID. Say your call sign every ten minutes during and at the end of the contact (QSO). Use of Tactical Call Signs. May be a more useful identifier for the purposes of the event. Does not substitute for proper station ID. Ham Guests. Guest operators may use their callsign, but are limited to the privileges of their call, not the host ham privileges. You are only required to say your call sign at 10 minute intervals and at the very end of a contact. Give some examples of proper identification. Also mention that regardless of the language being used for the contact, the station identification must be made in English. It is good practice to say both call signs so that others know who is on the air…maybe they will want to join in the conversation. During EMCOMM and public service operations it is often very convenient to expedite communications that Tactical Call Signs are used. Go over the concept of Tactical Call Signs and how they might be used, but also stress that the 10 minute ID rule still applies and give them an example of how to properly use the Tactical and personal call signs to satisfy this requirement. Finally go over a situation where a guest operator who has a higher class license than the owner of the station, and the guest wants to use their high class privileges on the station using the lower class call sign, they would append their call with the station owners call.

ID Rules Apply Repeaters must also ID using the same 10 minute rule.
Can be voice or CW (at 20 WPM or less). Satellites and ISS have special rules. Special event calls. Normal club call or control operator call given once per hour. There are many special circumstances. The important thing here is for the students to recognize that the rules are not always hard and fast and that there are exceptions that need to be understood if they will be involved in these kinds of operations.

Which of the following is a valid US amateur radio station call sign?
A. KMA3505 B. W3ABC C. KDKA D. 11Q1176 T1C02 (B)

Which indicator is required by the FCC to be transmitted after a station call sign?
A. /M when operating mobile B. /R when operating a repeater C. / followed by the FCC Region number when operating out of the region in which the license was issued D. /KT, /AE, or /AG when using new license privileges earned by CSCE while waiting for an upgrade to a previously issued license to appear in the FCC license database T1F08 (D)

Which type of call sign has a single letter in both its prefix and suffix?
A. Vanity B. Sequential C. Special event D. In-memoriam T1C01 (C)

How is access to an IRLP node accomplished?
A. By obtaining a password which is sent via voice to the node B. By using DTMF signals C. By entering the proper Internet password D. By using CTCSS tone codes T8C06 (B)

What type of identification is being used when identifying a station on the air as Race Headquarters? A. Tactical call sign B. An official call sign reserved for RACES drills C. SSID D. Broadcast station In this case, the code IS the communication. Also you don’t want other people controlling your space station. T1F01 (A)

When using tactical identifiers such as “Race Headquarters” during a communiy service net operation, how often must your station transmit the station’s FCC-assigned call sign? A. Never, the tactical call is sufficient B. Once during every hour C. At the end of each communication and every ten minutes during a communication D. At the end of every transmission T1F02 (C)

When is an amateur station required to transmit its assigned call sign?
A. At the beginning of each contact, and every 10 minutes thereafter B. At least once during each transmission C. At least every 15 minutes during and at the end of a communication D. At least every 10 minutes during and at the end of a communication T1F03 (D)

Which of the following is an acceptable language for use for station identification when operating in a phone sub-band? A. Any language recognized by the United Nations B. Any language recognized by the ITU C. The English language D. English, French, or Spanish T1F04 (C) [97.119(b)]

What method of call sign identification is required for a station transmitting phone signals?
A. Send the call sign followed by the indicator RPT B. Send the call sign using CW or phone emission C. Send the call sign followed by the indicator R D. Send the call sign using only phone emission T1F05 (B)

Which of the following formats of a self-assigned indicator is acceptable when identifying using a phone transmission? A. KL7CC stroke W3 B. KL7CC slant W3 C. KL7CC slash W3 D. All of these choices are correct T1F06 (D)

Which of the following restrictions apply when a non-licensed person is allowed to speak to a foreign station using a station under the control of a Technician Class control operator? A. The person must be a U.S. citizen B. The foreign station must be one with which the U.S. has a third party agreement C. The licensed control operator must do the station identification D. All of these choices are correct T1F07 (B)

Which of the following methods is encouraged by the FCC when identifying your station when using phone? A. Use of a phonetic alphabet B. Send your call sign in CW as well as voice C. Repeat your call sign three times D. Increase your signal to full power when identifying T2B09 (A) [97.119(b)(2)]

Interference QRN Natural interference (thunderstorms). Man-made (appliances and power lines). QRM Interference from nearby signals. Other hams or other users of the frequencies. Control operators should prevent interfering with other users of the frequencies. Review these “Q” signals.

Interference Harmful Willful
Interference that is disruptive but not intentional. Deal with it as best you can and help others avoid harmful interference. Willful Intentionally causing interference. This becomes a legal and law enforcement issue. This is rare and there are procedures to deal with this (ARRL Official Observers can help). Give the students some techniques on how to identify the type of interference and how to deal with it. Most of the interference will be unintentional. Everyone makes a mistake and in fact most hams will cause unintentional interference at some time during their operating careers. This type of interference should be discussed with some consideration because the student may be on the receiving end of a complaint themselves sometime. Willful interference is another matter. Give the students some strategies on how to deal with this kind of interference. Basically document the interference and give the information to their section Official Observer. Also avoid giving the perpetrator and audience, in most cases the person doing the interfering will give up and go somewhere else if they do not get the response and attention they are looking for. In all cases, if the students receive and interference complaint, they need to take that complaint seriously and deal with it as best they can.

Preventing Interference
Use common sense and courtesy. Keep equipment in proper operating order. No one owns a frequency; be a good neighbor and share. Yield to special operations and special circumstances. It is hard to teach common sense, but try to give the students some sense of how they can avoid interference problems and how they can mitigate interference should it occur (and it will). It is important to stress that getting into an on-the-air argument about interference is counter productive and should be avoided.

Third-Party Communications
Third-party means that a non-ham is involved in communication via ham radio. Could be actually speaking on the air. Could be passing a message on behalf of the non-ham. Within the US – no special rules as long as messages are non-commercial Across international borders. Make sure that third-party agreement exists. Many countries DO NOT have third-party agreements with US. During station identification say both stations’ call signs. Define third-party communications and give some examples.

Prohibited Transmissions
Unidentified transmissions . (not giving your call sign) False or deceptive signals. (using someone else’s call sign) False distress or emergency signals. (fake calls for help) Obscene or indecent speech. (up to interpretation) Music. Most of these prohibited transmissions should be easy to identify. Obscene or indecent language is up to some interpretation. Give the students some examples of things to avoid discussing on the radio.

No Business Communications
You can not make a profit through the use of transmissions made via ham radio. The exception is teachers using ham radio in their classrooms. This is also another area where it can get a little gray. Give some examples of acceptable and unacceptable business related communications. It boils down to if the operator is going to profit in some way by the transmission, then they should not do it. If in doubt, don’t use ham radio for the transmission. This can really get sticky in the scenario of professionals using ham radio during an emergency situation.

No Encrypted Transmissions
Encryption involves encoding information for transmission that must be decoded upon reception to interpret the information. This is okay if: Coding is open source. Intention is not to hide the message or deceive. Most students will not get involved in this situation. They should not try to hide or deceive anyone listening in on the transmission through the use of codes. The use of codes does not necessarily have to be technical in nature.

No Broadcasting Broadcasting is sending one-way transmissions with no expectation of getting a response. News Music Exceptions: Code practice. Ham radio related bulletins. Re-transmission of shuttle communications.

Special Circumstances
Ham communication is generally intended to be only between hams. Emergencies and critical situations create special circumstances. Special commemorative events may also qualify as special circumstances. Normal rules return when the situation returns to normal. Though ham communication is generally intended for hams, there are special circumstances where the rules are set aside to support the community at large during the emergency or critical situation. Give the students some specific examples that they might come across in their communities or regions.

On which of the following occasions may an FCC-licensed amateur station exchange messages with a U.S. military station? A. During an Armed Forces Day Communications Test B. During a Memorial Day Celebration C. During an Independence Day celebration D. During a propagation test T1D02 (A)

When is the transmission of codes or ciphers that hide the meaning of a message allowed by an amateur station? A. Only during contests B. Only when operating mobile C. Only when transmitting control commands to space stations or radio control craft D. Only when frequencies above 1280 MHz are used T1D03 (C)

What is the only time an amateur station is authorized to transmit music?
A. When incidental to an authorized retransmission of manned spacecraft communications B. When the music produces no spurious emissions C. When the purpose is to interfere with an illegal transmission D. When the music is transmitted above 1280 MHz T1D04 (A)

When may amateur radio operators use their stations to notify other amateurs of the availability of equipment for sale or trade? A. When the equipment is normally used in an amateur station and such activity is not conducted on a regular basis B. When the asking price is $ or less C. When the asking price is less than its appraised value D. When the equipment is not the personal property of either the station licensee or the control operator or their close relatives T1D05 (A)

What, if any, are the restrictions concerning transmission of language that may be considered indecent or obsene? A. The FCC maintains a list of words that are not permitted to be used on amateur frequencies B. Any such language is prohibited C. The ITU maintains a list of words that are not permitted to be used on amateur frequencies D. There is no such prohibition T1D06 (B)

What types of amateur stations can automatically retransmit the signals of other amateur stations?
A. Auxiliary, beacon, or Earth stations B. Auxiliary, repeater, or space stations C. Beacon, repeater, or space stations D. Earth, repeater, or space stations T1D07 (B)

In which of the following circumstances may the control operator of an amateur station receive compensation for operating the station? A. When engaging in communications on behalf of their employer B. When the communication is incidental to classroom instruction at an educational institution C. When re-broadcasting weather alerts during a RACES net D. When notifying other amateur operators of the availability for sale or trade of apparatus T1D08 (B)

Under which of the following circumstances are amateur stations authorized to transmit signals related to broadcasting, program production, or news gathering, assuming no other means is available? A. Only where such communications directly relate to the immediate safety of human life or protection of property B. Only when broadcasting communications to or from the space shuttle. C. Only where noncommercial programming is gathered and supplied exclusively to the National Public Radio network D. Only when using amateur repeaters linked to the Internet T1D09 (A)

What is the meaning of the term “broadcasting” in the FCC rules for the amateur services?
A. Two-way transmissions by amateur stations B. Transmission of music C. Transmission of messages directed only to amateur operators D. Transmissions intended for reception by the general public T1D10 (D)

Under which of the following circumstances may an amateur radio station engage in broadcasting
A. Under no circumstances B. When transmitting code practice, information bulletins, or transmissions necessary to provide emergency communications C. At any time as long as no music is transmitted D. At any time as long as the material transmitted did not originate from a commercial broadcast station T1D12 (B)

When may an amateur station transmit without identifying?
A. When the transmissions are of a brief nature to make station adjustments B. When the transmisions are unmodulated C. When the transmitted power level is below 1 watt D. When transmitting signals to control a model craft T1D11 (D)

Which of the following is a permissible use of the Amateur Radio Service?
A. Broadcasting music and videos to friends B. Providing a way for amateur radio operators to earn additional income by using their stations to pass messages C. Providing low-cost communications for start-up businesses D. Allowing a person to conduct radio experiments and to communicate with other licensed hams around the world T1A12 (D)

Safety

Electrical Safety Avoiding contact is the most effective way of practicing electrical safety. Most modern radio equipment uses currents that are not as dangerous as older equipment but precautions still must be taken. Point out that since most modern equipment runs off of 12 volts, there are still dangerous levels of current, particularly in power supplies that convert 120 volts AC to 12 volt DC, the students till need to be cautious and vigilant around current.

Electrical Injuries Shocks. Burns.
Even small levels can cause problems 30 Volts can cause burns 10-20 mA can cause contractions 100 mA or more can be lethal

Mitigating Electrical Hazards
TURN OFF POWER WHEN WORKING INSIDE EQUIPMENT!!!!!! MAKE SURE EQUIPMENT IS PROPERLY GROUNDED AND CIRCUIT PROTECTED!!!!! If power is required: Remove jewelry. Avoid unintentional touching of circuitry. Never bypass safety interlocks. Capacitors hold a charge even when power is off. Storage batteries are dangerous when shorted. The bottom line is use some common sense and avoid direct contact with current. Dangling hands, insulating shoes, knowing how components work and store energy are all good things to know and review when working inside equipment that is powered. Not the mention the damage that the operator can cause to equipment by probing around and shorting out parts of the circuit not intended to handle the level of current. Spend some time talking about battery safety. The current capacities of today’s batteries makes even more important to avoid short circuiting batteries.

Batteries Create current through a chemical reaction. Battery types.
Made up of individual cells (typically 1.2 to 1.5 volts per cell depending on type) connected in series or parallel. Battery types. Disposable (Carbon-Zinc, Alkaline, Lithium). Rechargeable (NiCd, NiMH, Li-Ion). Storage (Lead Acid, usually volts). Power capabilities rated in Ampere-hours. Amps x time. Examples of the different kinds of batteries will help illustrate this point. Discuss how the different kinds of batteries are used.

Battery Charging Some batteries can be recharged, some cannot.
Use the proper charger for the battery being charged. Batteries will wear out over time. Best if batteries are maintained fully charged. Over-charging will cause heating and could damage the battery. Some batteries (lead-acid) will release toxic fumes during charging so require ventilation.

How does current flowing through the body cause a health hazard?
A. By heating tissue B. It disrupts the electrical functions of cells C. It causes involuntary muscle contractions D. All of these choices are correct T0A02 (D)

What is connected to the green wire in a three-wire electrical AC plug?
A. Neutral B. Hot C. Ground D. The white wire T0A03 (C)

What is the purpose of a fuse in an electrical circuit?
A. To prevent power supply ripple from damaging a circuit B. To interrupt power in case of overload C. To limit current to prevent shocks D. All of these choices are correct T0A04 (B)

Why is it unwise to install a 20-ampere fuse in the place of a 5-ampere fuse?
A. The larger fuse would be likely to blow because it is rated for higher current B. The power supply ripple would greatly increase C. Excessive current could cause a fire D. All of these choices are correct T0A05 (C)

What is a good way to guard against electrical shock at your station?
A. Use three-wire cords and plugs for all AC powered equipment B. Connect all AC powered station equipment to a common safety ground C. Use a circuit protected by a ground-fault interrupter D. All of these choices are correct T0A06 (D)

Which of these precautions should be taken when installing devices for lightning protection in a coaxial cable feedline? A. Include a parallel bypass switch for each protector so that it can be switched out of the circuit when running high power B. Include a series switch in the ground line of each protector to prevent RF overload from inadvertently damaging the protector C. Keep the ground wires from each protector separate and connected to station ground D. Ground all of the protectors to a common plate which is in turn connected to an external ground T0A07 (D)

Which of the following battery types is rechargeable?
A. Nickel-metal hydride B. Lithium-ion C. Lead-acid gel-cell D. All of these choices are correct T6A10 (D)

Which of the following battery types is not rechargeable?
A. Nickel-cadmium B. Carbon-zinc C. Lead-acid D. Lithium-ion T6A11 (B)

What is one way to recharge a a 12-volt lead-acid station battery if the commercial power is out?
A. Cool the battery in ice for several hours B. Add acid to the battery C. Connect the battery in parallel with a vehicle’s battery and run the engine D. All of these choices are correct T2C02 (C)

Which of the following is a safety hazard of a 12-volt storage battery?
A. Touching both terminals with the hands can cause electrical shock B. Shorting the terminals can cause burns, fire, or an explosion C. RF emissions from the battery D. Allof these choices are correct T0A01 (B)

What kind of hazard is presented by a conventional 12-volt storage battery?
A. It emits ozone which can be harmful to the atmosphere B. Shock hazard due to high voltage C. Explosive gas can collect if not properly vented D. All of these choices are correct T0A09 (C)

What can happen if a lead-acid storage battery is charged or discharged too quickly?
A. The battery could overheat and give off flammable gas or explode B. The voltage can become reversed C. The memory effect will reduce the capacity of the battery D. All of these choices are correct T0A10 (A)

What kind of hazard might exist in a power supply when it is turned off and disconnected?
A. Static electricity could damage the grounding system B. Circulating currents inside the transformer might cause damage C. The fuse might blow if you remove the cover D. You might receive an electric shock from stored charge in large capacitors T0A11 (D)

What safety equipment should always be included in home-built equipment that is powered from 120V AC power circuits? A. A fuse or circuit breaker in series with the AC hot conductor B. An AC voltmeter across the incoming power source C. An inductor in series with the AC power source D. A capacitor across the AC power source T0A08 (A)

RF Safety Proper Grounding.
Important not only for protection of equipment and people, any wires connected to the radio potentially becomes part of the antenna and can radiate RF where it is not intended. Discuss with the students the difference between electrical ground and RF ground. A good electrical ground does not necessarily mean that it is a good RF ground. Provide some techniques that could be used to ensure a good RF ground.

Lightning Safety Antennas are not struck any more frequently than trees or tall structures. Ground all antennas. Use lightning arrestors. Disconnect antenna cables and power cords during storms. Disconnect telephone lines from computer modems. Students should take precautions to mitigate the potential of lightening strikes but they should also be assured that their antennas pose no more of a risk than the trees and other tall structures in the area. Have on hand a lightening arrestor to show the students. Point out that lightening arrestors do not provide absolute protection form a strike. It is a good habit to disconnect antennas when the equipment is not in use. Many people forget that telephone lines and telephone poles are nice lightening rods and can be a source of lightening strikes that can take out equipment. Phone lines connected to computers provide a source for lightening to enter the home and other equipment connected to the household wiring.

RF Exposure Exposure to high levels of RF can cause problems.
If equipment is operated properly, RF exposure is minimal and not dangerous. Problem is RF energy can heat body tissues. Heating depends on the RF intensity and frequency. Point out to the students that RF exposure can cause harm, particularly heating of body tissues (much like happens in a microwave oven but to a far lesser extent except in the most extreme situations), BUT, with simple precautions, the potential of harm is very small. It sounds stupid, but articulate a simple rule, don’t stand near an antenna, don’t touch an antenna, don’t put an antenna in your mouth when the transmitter is on.

RF Intensity Power Density Actual transmitter power.
Higher power, higher risk. Antenna gain and proximity. Beam antennas focus available energy. Being physically close or standing in the beam direction increases risk. Mode duty cycle. The more time the power output is at high level, the higher the risk. Here you will break down and discuss the two components of RF exposure, field intensity and frequency. Try to keep the discussion focused on the big picture, it is easy to get into details, charts and graphs, and using vocabulary of units that are very intimidating. Keep the big picture, know in general terms want influences RF exposure, and how to limit the exposure. It makes sense that the more power you transmit, the more potential there is for harmful RF exposure. Assure the students that if they operate commercial, off-the-shelf equipment (which they probably will early in their ham radio careers) that the power levels are such that there will be little exposure danger. Beam antennas focus the RF energy in desired directions, therefore standing close in the favored direction of the beam will increase the hazard. Finally, spend some time talking about duty cycle…how much time the transmitter is at higher power levels while operating.

Mode Duty Cycle The more time the transmitted power is at high levels, the greater the duty cycle, and the greater the exposure risk. Note here, that FM, the mode most used by new hams, is 100% duty cycle.

RF Exposure and Frequency

How does RF radiation differ from ionizing radiation (radioactivity)?
A. RF radiation does not have sufficient energy to cause genetic damage B. RF radiation can only be detected with an RF dosimeter C. RF radiation is limited in range to a few feet D. RF radiation is perfectly safe T0C12 (A)

What type of radiation are VHF and UHF radio signals?
A. Gamma radiation B. Ionizing radiation C. Alpha radiation D. Non-ionizing radiation T0C01 (D)

Which of the following frequencies has the lowest value for Maximum Permissible Exposure limit?
A. 3.5 MHz B. 50 MHz C. 440 MHz D MHz T0C02 (B)

A. 1500 watts PEP transmitter output B. 1 watt forward power
What is the maximum power level that an amateur radio station may use at VHF frequencies before an RF exposure evaluation is required? A watts PEP transmitter output B. 1 watt forward power C. 50 watts PEP at the antenna D. 50 watts PEP reflected power T0C03 (C)

What factors affect the RF exposure of people near an amateur station antenna?
A. Frequency and power level of the RF field B. Distance from the antenna to a person C. Radiation pattern of the antenna D. All of these answers are correct T0C04 (D)

Why do exposure limits vary with frequency?
A. Lower frequency RF fields have more energy than higher frequency fields B. Lower frequency RF fields do not penetrate the human body C. Higher frequency RF fields are transient in nature D. The human body absorbs more RF energy at some frequencies than at others T0C05 (D)

Which of the following is an acceptable method to determine that your station complies with FCC RF exposure regulations? A. By calculation based on FCC OET Bulletin 65 B. By calculation based on computer modeling C. By measurement of field strength using calibrated equipment D. All of these choices are correct T0C06 (D)

What could happen if a person accidentally touched your antenna while you were transmitting?
A. Touching the antenna could cause television interference B. They might receive a painful RF burn C. They might develop radiation poisoning D. All of these choices are correct T0C07 (B)

Which of the following actions might amateur operators take to prevent exposure to RF radiation in excess of FCC-supplied limits? A. Relocate antennas B. Relocate the transmitter C. Increase the duty cycle D. All of these choices are correct T0C08 (A)

How can you make sure your station stays in compliance with RF safety regulations?
A. By informing the FCC of any changes made in your station B. By re-evaluating the station whenever an item of equipment is changed C. By making sure your antennas have low SWR D. All of these choices are correct T0C09 (B)

Why is duty cycle one of the factors used to determine safe RF radiation exposure levels?
A. It affects the average exposure of people to radiation B. It affects the peak exposure of people to radiation C. It takes into account the antenna feedline loss D. It takes into account the thermal effects of the final amplifier T0C10 (A)

What is the definition of duty cycle during the averaging time for RF exposure?
A. The difference between lowest power output and the highest power output of a transmitter B. The difference between the PEP and average power output of a transmitter C. The percentage of time that a transmitter is transmitting D. The percentage of time that a transmitter is not transmitting T0C11 (C)

If the averaging time for exposure is 6 minutes, how much power density is permitted if the signal is present for 3 minutes and absent for 3 minutes rather than being present for the entire 6 minutes? A. 3 times as much B. ½ as much C. 2 times as much D. There is no adjustment allowed for shorter exposure times T0C13 (C)

Physical Safety Mobile Installations. Antenna installation.
Secure all equipment. Location, location, location. Antenna installation. Clear of trees and power lines. If it falls it won’t hit anyone or cross power lines. Tower climbing considerations. Make sure that equipment in cars is securely fastened so that it will not move around and create a hazard. Locate the controls of the equipment so that it does not present a hazard and distraction while driving. Antennas generally need to be clear of obstacles and as high as practical. However, some common sense needs to be exercised to prevent antennas from becoming a safety hazard. Particular attention needs to be given to power lines and structure attachment points. Finally go over some precautions and safety considerations that must be taken if the students will be doing tower work. Most students will not be installing towers early in their ham careers, but they should be aware that special precautions should be taken and where they can review that information in the future.

When should members of a tower work team wear a hard hat and safety glasses?
A. At all times except when climbing the tower B. At all times except when belted firmly to the tower C. At all times when any work is being done on the tower D. Only when the tower exceeds 30 feet in height T0B01 (C)

What is a good precaution to observe before climbing an antenna tower?
A. Make sure that you wear a grounded wrist strap B. Remove all tower grounding connections C. Put on a climbing harness and safety glasses D. All of the these choices are correct T0B02 (C)

Under what circumstances is it safe to climb a tower without a helper or observer?
A. When no electrical work is being performed B. When no mechanical work is being performed C. When the work being done is not more than 20 feet above the ground D. Never T0B03 (D)

Which of the following is an important safety precaution to observe when putting up an antenna tower? A. Wear a ground strap connected to your wrist at all times B. Insulate the base of the tower to avoid lightning strikes C. Look for and stay clear of any overhead electrical wires D. All of these choices are correct T0B04 (C)

What is the purpose of a gin pole?
A. To temporarily replace guy wires B. To be used in place of a safety harness C. To lift tower sections or antennas D. To provide a temporary ground T0B05 (C)

What is the minimum safe distance from a power line to allow when installing an antenna?
A. Half the width of your property B. The height of the power line above ground C. 1/2 wavelength at the operating frequency D. So that if the antenna falls unexpectedly, no part of it can come closer than 10 feet to the power wires T0B06 (D)

Which of the following is an important safety rule to remember when using a crank-up tower?
A. This type of tower must never be painted B. This type of tower must never be grounded C. This type of tower must never be climbed unless it is in the fully retracted position D. All of these choices are correct T0B07 (C)

What is considered to be a proper grounding method for a tower?
A. A single four-foot ground rod, driven into the ground no more than 12 inches from the base B. A ferrite-core RF choke connected between the tower and ground C. Separate eight-foot long ground rods for each tower leg, bonded to the tower and each other D. A connection between the tower base and a cold water pipe T0B08 (C)

Why should you avoid attaching an antenna to a utility pole?
A. The antenna will not work properly because of induced voltages B. The utility company will charge you an extra monthly fee C. The antenna could contact high-voltage power wires D. All of these choices are correct T0B09 (C)

Which of the following is true concerning grounding conductors used for lightning protection?
A. Only non-insulated wire must be used B. Wires must be carefully routed with precise right-angle bends C. Sharp bends must be avoided D. Common grounds must be avoided T0B10 (C)

Which of the following is good practice when installing ground wires on a tower for lightning protection? A. Put a loop in the ground connection to prevent water damage to the ground system B. Make sure that all bends in the ground wires are clean, right angle bends C. Ensure that connections are short and direct D. All of these choices are correct T0B12(C)

Which of the following establishes grounding requirements for an amateur radio tower or antenna?
A. FCC Part 97 Rules B. Local electrical codes C. FAA tower lighting regulations D. Underwriters Laboratories' recommended practices T0B11 (B)

That’s It! Remember basic principles and a few formulas
If you have problems with a question Use common sense and exclude nonsense answers No penalty for guessing, don’t leave blanks If you’re not sure, go with your first answer (VE’s have said changed answers are usually wrong) You only need to get 75% No score is kept except PASS Relax & Good Luck!

Formula Summary Ohm’s Law: E (volts) = I (amps) x R (ohms)
Power: P (watts) = E (volts) x I (amps) Wavelength (meters) = 300 / Frequency (in MHz) Antennas: Vertical: Length (in feet) = 234 / Frequency (in MHz) Dipole: Length (in feet) = 468 / Frequency (in MHz) Scale prefixes: Mega = 1,000,000, Kilo = 1,000 milli = 1 thousandth, micro = 1 millionth, pico = 1 trillionth Decibels 3 dB = 2x; 10dB = 10x; additive

Amateur Radio FCC License Class

Similar presentations

Presentation on theme: "Amateur Radio FCC License Class"— Presentation transcript:

Similar presentations

About project

Feedback

Log in

Auth with social network:

Amateur Radio FCC License Class

Similar presentations

Presentation on theme: "Amateur Radio FCC License Class"— Presentation transcript:

Similar presentations

About project

Feedback