1. Philosophy of Religion

2. Definitions of Faith I. Credential —acceptance of unproven dogma and information II. Fiducia —more than intellectual assent; involves hear and will III. Fideis —trust with cognitive element, uses history and reason

3. Three Distortions of Faith I. Intellectual distortion—acceptance of proposition given by authority II. Voluntaristic distortion—lack of evidence made up for by act of will III. Emotionalistic distortion—no concrete fact, only subjective emotion

4. Challenges to Religious Belief. Introduction. Introduction. –In recent centuries, several philosophers have challenged central assumptions of religious belief, often with the purpose of advancing atheism.

5. 1. The Irrationality of Believing in Miracles 1. The Irrationality of Believing in Miracles –a. Thesis: it is never reasonable to believe second hand reports concerning miracles. –The wise person should proportion his belief to the evidence; this counts for sensory evidence from testimony as well. David Hume. David Hume.

6. b. Evidence and belief. b. Evidence and belief. c. Reasons for not trusting testimonies. c. Reasons for not trusting testimonies. –ii. The character or number of the witnesses: too few or of a doubtful character. –i. The opposition of contrary testimony: when witnesses contradict each other. –iii. The manner of delivering the testimony: when delivered with bias, hesitation, violent declaration.

7. d. Definition of a Miracle. d. Definition of a Miracle. –i. General definition: "a miracle is a violation of the laws of nature". –ii. More accurate definition: "a transgression of a law of nature by a particular volition of the deity, or by the interposition of some invisible agent".

8. e. Main argument against miracles. e. Main argument against miracles. –i. Uniform experience of nature amounts to a direct and full proof against the existence of any miracle. –ii. Argument in propositional form.  (1) The evidence from experience in support of a law of nature is extremely strong.  (2) A miracle is a violation of a law of nature.  (3) Therefore, the evidence from experience against the occurrence of a miracle is extremely strong. –iii. General maxim about testimonies: a testimony is reasonable only if its truth is more likely than its falsehood.

9. f. Four additional arguments against miracles. f. Four additional arguments against miracles. –i. Witnesses lack Integrity. –ii. Predisposition to Sensationalize. –iii. Abound in Barbarous Nations. –iv. Miracles Support Rival Religious Systems.

10. g. Miracles in Christianity: two interpretations of Hume’s point. g. Miracles in Christianity: two interpretations of Hume’s point. –i. Friendly interpretation: the miracles and prophecies in the Bible are not rational, and can only be believed through an act of divinely inspired faith. –ii. Unfriendly interpretation: belief in miracles is so irrational that it requires miraculous stupidity on the part of the believer.

11. . Religion as the Opium of the Masses. Religion as the Opium of the Masses a. Thesis: religion is like a drug insofar as it is created by people as a means of dealing with genuine suffering and oppression. a. Thesis: religion is like a drug insofar as it is created by people as a means of dealing with genuine suffering and oppression. b. 19th century critics of religion commonly offered psychological and sociological explanations for how presumably erroneous religious convictions arise in the minds of believers and how they function in society. b. 19th century critics of religion commonly offered psychological and sociological explanations for how presumably erroneous religious convictions arise in the minds of believers and how they function in society. Karl Marx

12. c. The opium of the people. c. The opium of the people. –i. It is a projection of the best conception we have of human life. It lulls people into complacency to accept their present status in hopes for a better life in the hereafter. d. Marx’s Naturalism. d. Marx’s Naturalism. –i. Theologians often defend the concepts of God and religion with arguments about the first cause of the world; Marx believes that these questions are misguided and prove nothing

13. The Death of God: The Death of God: a. Thesis: civilization has “killed” (i.e., outgrown) God through advances, and we need to find a new value system as a replacement for religion. a. Thesis: civilization has “killed” (i.e., outgrown) God through advances, and we need to find a new value system as a replacement for religion. b. The significance of the end of religious belief. b. The significance of the end of religious belief. –i. Parable of the madman: announces the death of God and the effects this has produced. Friedrich Nietzsche.

14. c. The consequences of the end of religious belief. c. The consequences of the end of religious belief. –i. The value system of religion is gone, and we have no fixed truth to rely on – not even science, which is left over from belief in God. d. Religion, science, pessimism, and need. d. Religion, science, pessimism, and need. –i. People are reluctant to give up religion because of a certain need to believe and to rely on something. The instinct of weakness preserves religions, metaphysics, and other kinds of convictions.

15. . The Problem of Evil Introduction. Introduction. a. Principal question: how could an all- good God permit human suffering and other evils. a. Principal question: how could an all- good God permit human suffering and other evils. b. Sometimes discussed to clarify God’s nature and human expectations of God; other times as an argument against the existence of God. b. Sometimes discussed to clarify God’s nature and human expectations of God; other times as an argument against the existence of God.

16. Fyodor Dostoevsky.. God and Human Suffering:. God and Human Suffering: a. Thesis: the suffering of innocent animals and children seems to serve no greater good, and we would expect God to prevent these things. a. Thesis: the suffering of innocent animals and children seems to serve no greater good, and we would expect God to prevent these things. b. Dialogue between two brothers, Ivan (an atheist) and Alyosha (novice monk). b. Dialogue between two brothers, Ivan (an atheist) and Alyosha (novice monk).

17. c. Main problem. c. Main problem. –i. Innocent animals and children frequently suffer, and there is no apparent good that comes from this to justify it. –ii. Believers in God are often the sources of suffering, which compounds the problem. –iii. Divine punishment of the offenders would not solve the problem.

18. John Mackie The Logical Problem of Evil The Logical Problem of Evil a. Thesis: belief in an all good and all powerful God is logically inconsistent with the fact of suffering in the world a. Thesis: belief in an all good and all powerful God is logically inconsistent with the fact of suffering in the world b. The only adequate solutions to the problem are to deny God’s goodness, God’s power, or the existence of evil. However theologians do not take this route b. The only adequate solutions to the problem are to deny God’s goodness, God’s power, or the existence of evil. However theologians do not take this route

19. c. Inadequate solutions c. Inadequate solutions –i. Goodness cannot exist without evil. Mackie responds that evil may be necessary to recognize goodness, but evil is not ontologically necessary for goodness to exist –Ii. The universe is better with some evil in it; for example, without poverty (a first-order evil) there would be no charity (a second-order good). Mackie responds that first-order evils like poverty will also allow for second order evils, such as malevolence –Iii. Free will defense: evil is the result of human choice, for which God bears no responsibility. He responds that God could have created a world containing free creatures that always chose to do good

20. John Hick A Soul-Making Theodicy A Soul-Making Theodicy a. Thesis: human creation is a developmental process during which time we evolve to eventually become a more perfect likeness of God; suffering is part of the process. a. Thesis: human creation is a developmental process during which time we evolve to eventually become a more perfect likeness of God; suffering is part of the process. b. Hick follows Irenaeus, who maintained that human creation involves a two step process: (1) we are created in the image of God, and, (2) after much development, become re- created in the likeness of God. b. Hick follows Irenaeus, who maintained that human creation involves a two step process: (1) we are created in the image of God, and, (2) after much development, become re- created in the likeness of God. c. Hick’s view is compatible with evolutionary theory. c. Hick’s view is compatible with evolutionary theory.

21. Mysticism and Religious Experience Introduction Introduction a. Mystical experiences are a kind of religious experience that specifically involves a sense of union with God. a. Mystical experiences are a kind of religious experience that specifically involves a sense of union with God. b. Unanimity thesis: there is a presumption in favor of the reliability of mystical experiences because mystics in different religions generally report the same thing (i.e., a unity of all things). b. Unanimity thesis: there is a presumption in favor of the reliability of mystical experiences because mystics in different religions generally report the same thing (i.e., a unity of all things).

22. . Hindu Mysticism.. Hindu Mysticism. a. Thesis: Hindu mysticism involves experiencing the Self-God (Atman Brahman), which is the ultimate reality of all things that lies at the core of each of our identities. a. Thesis: Hindu mysticism involves experiencing the Self-God (Atman Brahman), which is the ultimate reality of all things that lies at the core of each of our identities. b. Bhagavad Gita. b. Bhagavad Gita. i. Dialogue between Arjuna (an expert archer) and Krishna (his chariot driver Krishna) about engaging in a bloody family feud. Krishna teaches Arjuna about the Self-God and the meditative path of yoga. i. Dialogue between Arjuna (an expert archer) and Krishna (his chariot driver Krishna) about engaging in a bloody family feud. Krishna teaches Arjuna about the Self-God and the meditative path of yoga. ii. Those who cannot accomplish it in this life can try again in the next. ii. Those who cannot accomplish it in this life can try again in the next.

23. c. Patanjali’s Yoga Sutra describes an eight-step meditative process that leads to this mystical experience. c. Patanjali’s Yoga Sutra describes an eight-step meditative process that leads to this mystical experience. i. Appetitive restraint, social observance, bodily postures, breath regulation, suppression of the senses, focus, even awareness, and meditative union. i. Appetitive restraint, social observance, bodily postures, breath regulation, suppression of the senses, focus, even awareness, and meditative union.

24. The Limited Authority of Mystical Experiences: William James. The Limited Authority of Mystical Experiences: William James. a. Thesis: the claims of various mystics and concluded that they may be justly authoritative for the mystic having the experience, but they have no authority over the nonmystic a. Thesis: the claims of various mystics and concluded that they may be justly authoritative for the mystic having the experience, but they have no authority over the nonmystic

25. b. James defends three points. b. James defends three points. i. Mystical states are authoritative for the mystic because they are directly perceived in a way similar to the way our senses perceive the world around us. i. Mystical states are authoritative for the mystic because they are directly perceived in a way similar to the way our senses perceive the world around us. ii. “No authority emanates from them which should make it a duty for those who stand outside of them to accept their revelations uncritically”. ii. “No authority emanates from them which should make it a duty for those who stand outside of them to accept their revelations uncritically”. iii. Mystical experiences show that our normal consciousness of iii. Mystical experiences show that our normal consciousness of

26. The Untrustworthiness of Mystical Experiences: Bertrand Russell. The Untrustworthiness of Mystical Experiences: Bertrand Russell. a. Thesis: mystical claims about the world are untrustworthy because they require abnormal physical states. a. Thesis: mystical claims about the world are untrustworthy because they require abnormal physical states. b. Three common points in reports of mystical experiences: the unity of the world, the illusory nature of evil, and the unreality of time. b. Three common points in reports of mystical experiences: the unity of the world, the illusory nature of evil, and the unreality of time.

27. c. In spite of the unanimity of reports of mystical experiences, Russell argues that they should be dismissed because they require abnormal bodily states. c. In spite of the unanimity of reports of mystical experiences, Russell argues that they should be dismissed because they require abnormal bodily states. d. There may be some psychological benefits to moderate mystical experiences, particularly as it gives the sense of “Breadth and calm and profundity d. There may be some psychological benefits to moderate mystical experiences, particularly as it gives the sense of “Breadth and calm and profundity

28. Relationship of God to the World

29. I. God as Efficient Cause—shapes the cosmic process from preexistence matter and forms II. God as the source of the cosmic process which arises as an inner self-manifestation from the Divine Being A. Plotinus—all reality consists of a series of necessary emanations from the One as the Eternal Source B. Spinoza—the universe arises by logical necessity from the Divine Nature and is itself God C. Hegel—the universe is a dynamic evolution of the Absolute Spirit

30. III. God as the ever-changing final stage of the ongoing cosmic process—not its efficient cause or ground A. According to Samuel Alexander, in its evolution from primal space-time the world is ever on the move toward an infinitely perfect goal B. While it perpetually strives toward this goal it never attains a state of absolute perfection

31. IV. God is the final cause of the Cosmic Process A. Aristotle’s view of matter as uncreated and eternal, but considers God not only the efficient cause but also the final cause that at its ends or goal induces change in the world B. Whitehead modifies this approach and rejects God as efficient Cause or creator, but considers God as the final cause that brings order into the world

32. Proofs for the Existence of God

33. Cosmological (Causal) Thomas Aquinas I. Attempts to prove God’s existence from everyday experiences of the ordinary world around us A. Knowledge must be fed to us through the senses B. Since God, thus, cannot be seen, we know God directly, but only through his effects

34. II. He produced the “Five Ways” A. The first is from movement in the sense of change from potency to act; the Final Mover B. The second seeks to prove God’s existence as Efficient Cause, from whom we must have derived our existence and the existence of the worlds as we know it; The Creator or Maker

35. C. The third way deals with the very nature of being—this being is called “contingent”, beings happen to exist, but they might never have existed all; the Necessary Being D. The fourth way begins from the pattern which objects make in the “Hierarchy of Nature” 1. Some things are more perfect than others

36. 2. Different things can be good in varying degrees according to their position in the “Hierarchy of Being” 3. This hierarchical goodness must have some ultimate explanation which must itself be unlimited; the Source of all Perfection and Value E. The Teleological Way—argues from the complexity of nature and the law and order underlying

37. Teleological Proof I. William Paley wrote Natural Theology (1802) represents the 18 th century view in its “classical form”

38. II. He writes that there could not be a design without a designer: Arrangement, disposition of parts, subserviency of means to an end, relation of instruments to arise, imply the presence of intelligence with mind. The existence of such a complicated and interrelated world requires the existence of an eternal omniscient designer for such a magnificent world could not have been the result of blind, unthinking chaos.

39. III. Paley’s world was Newtonian, based on a static mechanical model of nature A. It was a world of design, not development B. It was concerned with the order of nature, not the history of nature

40. Ontological Argument I. Anselm (1033-1109) was foremost among scholastic thinkers II. Wanted to defend the faith by intellectual reasoning rather than by arguments based on Scripture and other authorities

41. III. Cur Deus Homo; important contribution to the theology of the Atonement—interpreted the doctrine in terms of the satisfaction due to the outraged majesty of God IV. The Monologian; was to establish the being of God solely from the consideration of truth and goodness as intellectual notions

42. V. The Proslogian; the above reasoning was given a more systematic form VI. Popular until the latter half of the 13 th century: Descartes and Leibniz would revive it VII. If we accept Anselm’s definition of God as that being greater than which cannot be conceived, the ontological argument asserts that it is contradictory to conceive fo God’s non-existence, since existence is inherent in God’s perfection

43. VIII. To simplify this proof, one scholar devised the following outline: A. I have an idea of God B. I am finite C. My idea of God is infinite D. Therefore the idea of God must be—the idea must have originated with the infinite mind IX. Anselm’s argument is a priori, without recourse to empirical existence

44. Moral Proof I. Immanuel Kant develops this proof after he destroyed the first three II. He established the possibility of belief in God by means of a method which would have vast repercussions in modern and contemporary philosophical theology

45. III. His proof: A. Duty comes to us in the form of a categorical imperative B. It is categorical in contradistinction to hypothetical, it is absolute and unconditional C. It could not follow the formula; you ought to do your duty if because this is reconcilable with you ought to do your duty if you have sufficient desire or inclination to do it

46. D. The hypothetical imperative concerns prudential, not moral actions E. Kant held that if this analysis of morality was correct; then three things would follow: 1. The Freedom of the Will, it would be ludicrous to feel obliged to do an action if in fact we were unable to do it, ought implies can

47. 2. The Immortality of the Soul, in spite of repeated attempts we never achieve our highest desire—to be wholly moral or good (a) Therefore we must have faith in and live in the expectation of a life beyond this one where the supreme achievement is possible and actual (b) Thus, mortality demands that we believe in the immortality of the soul

48. 3. The Existence of God (a) He was aware that the pursuit of the moral life does not always lead to happiness and the pursuit of happiness does not necessarily lead to the achievement of virtue (b) Kant held that this insight leads a moral agent to believe in a God who can correlate the two—happiness and virtue (c ) Technically, Kant did not regard this as a “proof” of God; rather it is regarded as an “invitation”

49. Soren Kiekegaard (1813-1855)

50. Introduction I. Lived in the 19 th century, but many scholars believe he belongs to the 20 th II. His influence became prominent after WWI III. Known as the “Father of Christian Existentialism”

51. IV. His family life A. Father was a dominating personality—successful in business and retired at age of 40 B. Kierkegaard with the 7 th and last child (first child came after 4 months of marriage C. His mother was 45 and his father as 56 at his birth

52. D. His father was a man of great guilt feelings, interpreted as 1. a result of the “premature” birth of his first child 2. a result of his cursing God as a young man E. His father enjoyed taking him on imaginary trips

53. F. Strict religious orthodoxy was part of his younger years G. He would break from his father’s influence for a while but would reconcile and experience a sort of “conversion” at the age of 25

54. V. He entered the University of Copenhagen in 1920 to study philosophy A. His real interest were in literature and philosophy B. While at the university he seemed to have been a charming and very popular student

55. His “Conversion” I. A series of events brought about a spiritual crisis in his life A. His father’s confession of a “moral sin” committed with his servant girl

56. B. His broken engagement with his fiancé, Regine Olson in 1837 1. She was a lovely and bright young lady 2. He became engaged to Regine after completing his degree 3. After a year he realized he had made a mistake and the engagement was broken

57. 4. He never answered the “why” of the breakup a. He claimed to have loved her and never loved any other b. In his Journals, he spoke of a “divine protest” c. This experience began what he referred to as his aesthetic period

58. 5. He wrote several books under a pseudonym which dealt with his relationship to Regine a. Either/or b. Repetition c. Fear and Trembling d. Editying Discourses

59. C. He had written against a “scandalous paper” and he had expected his attacks would elicit support, such did not happen 1. The paper turned on him with a series of savage articles and cartoons which held him up to ridicule 2. He then suffered a “martyrdom of laughter” which resulted in isolating him further from the masses, which he likened at this time of a flock of dumb geese

60. 3. He saw this experience as “providential” and increased his resolve to pursue his religious writings 4. During this period he wrote his two philosophical masterpieces a. Philosophical Fragments (1844) b. Concluding Unscientific Postscripts (1846)

61. 5. His other works at this time included: a. Purity of Heart b. The Concept of Dread c. Sickness Unto Death d. Training in Christianity e. For Self-Examination

62. II. During the last decades of his life he came to a profound awareness of Christian truth and believed that he was called to witness to this truth as he saw it A. He realized this would entail suffering for him as an individual at the hands of the majority B. The writings of these years all point to the difficulty of becoming a Christian and the “hypocrisy” of conventional Christianity and the institutional church

63. C. He finally felt called to make a direct and unsparing attack on the state church of Denmark D. Articles and pamphlets which appeared between 1854 and 1855 were published in English as Attack Upon Christendom E. According to Kierkegaard, where everyone is considered Christian by the conventional act of baptism, true Christianity does not exit

64. His Thought I. His work can be seen as a sustained attack upon all forms of rational theology A. Like Hegel, he uses a dialectical method—but his methodology was existential, that is: B. It does not move within a closed, necessary, logical system C. It begins, rather, with a single individual confronted with the possibilities of one’s own existence

65. II. His existential dialectic moves with three chief spheres A. The Aesthetic 1. This period is identified with “romantic sensibility” (a) sensual immediacy—Don Juan (b) doubt—Faust (c) despair—the wandering Jew

66. 2. Chief characteristic of this sphere is the lack of involvement, an inability to make a determined and permanent action 3. One becomes a drifting victim of one’s own search for the “pleasurable” moment, which is never satisfied and leads to restlessness 4. This futility leads to the second stage of the aesthetic despair—the skepticism of Faust—which is a qualified form of despair

67. 5. The recognition of despair is invoked in the figure of the Wandering Jew, in whom lurks the profounder despair which results in complete absence of hope 6. In Sickness Unto Death, he analyses the dialectic of despair with brilliant insight a. Despair must come before one realizes the true consciousness of life b. Despair can lead to a spiritual hardening and death c. Yet, it can also lead one to awaken to one’s eternal validity

68. 7. Anxiety and despair will bring one before a decision and this decision requires a “leap” to a new stage

69. II. The Ethical A. The leap to the Ethical Stage can be summed up with the phrase, choose thyself B. The aim of the ethical life is not simply to know the truth but to become the truth; not to produce objective truth but to transform one’s subject self

70. C. Most ethical systems are overly formal and cannot take into account certain indispensable existential realities 1. For instance, he would criticize Kant’s Moral Theology for the following reasons: 2. It tended to make evil and sin superficial rather than radical 3. It failed to deal adequately with the motivation or will to carry out the moral imperative

71. D. In Fear and Trembling, he wrote about the teleological suspension of the ethical 1. Could there be situations in which one’s absolute obedience to God would contravene the Categorical Imperative—such as Abraham’s sacrifice of his son Isaac

72. 2. He would answer yes! For one who knows the living God determines his relation to the universal by his relation to the absolute, not his relation to the absolute by his relation to the universal D. For Kierkegaard, most ethical systems fail and there must be an existential leap to the religious stage of existence

73. III. The Religious A. There are two possibilities in the religious stage, as recorded in Philosophical Fragments in which he compares the religion of Socrates (who is symbol of all philosophical idealism) with the Christian doctrine of creation

74. 1. The religion of immanence: the religion of Socrates presupposes that religious truth is in every human being a. All people posses truth; what is needed is a teacher or midwife who, by skillful means, can induce the student to give birth to the knowledge located within b. Each student is his/her own center and the entire world centers on the student c. The teacher and the occasion of his teachings have no special significance

75. 2. The religion of Jesus: a. But what if Socrates is wrong—what if a specific moment in time is of vital significance for the acquisition of truth? b. Then, the teacher becomes an indispensable and unique bearer of the truth c. The teacher must bring truth to the student and give to the student the conditions necessary for understanding it c. The teacher must bring truth to the student and give to the student the conditions necessary for understanding it

76. d. A teacher who gives the student the requisite condition and truth is no ordinary teacher, but should be called Savior and Redeemer e. The disciple, who, in a state of error receives the condition and the truth becomes another man... A man of a different quality, or as we may call him, a new creature

77. 3. He regards the Incarnation as a paradox since it exceeds all limits of human comprehension 4. It is the Absolute Paradox, the Absurd to which we can respond either in Faith or in Offense

78. 5. The paradox of the Incarnation is doubly absurd for: a. It claims that God has become human, that the Eternal has become temporal, and; b. Human happiness can have its point of departure in a historical event, the historicity of which can be only be accorded probability

79. 6. He stresses that one’s eternal happiness can be based upon historical knowledge alone, for history is the sphere of the relative and the probable 7. Eternal truth can be appropriated only by a Faith in the Paradox held in infinite passion

80. III. Truth is Subjectivity A. Kierkegaard did not deny that there truths independent of the knower— what he insisted was that it wrong to think of religious truth--, i.e., faith, as acquired in the same way one obtains knowledge

81. B. He wrote in his Journals: The thing is to find a Truth which is true for me, to find the idea for which I can live and die... What good would it do me to be able to explain the meaning of Christianity if it had no deeper significance for me and my life

82. C. In Concluding Unscientific Postscripts, he stresses that it is not the objective truth of Christianity, but the relationship of the existing individual to Christianity which is the fundamental problem—in religion truth is subjective because it is a truth that requires personal appropriation

83. d. He is referring to a special kind of truth—it is existential truth, truth that cannot be known through a parrot-like echo but only through one’s own activity 6. Thus, religious truth requires a leap of faith 7. This leap is a moral and religious category and has to do with what William James called live options, those existential decisions of life involving new situations

84. His Influence I. The immediate effect of his writings outside Denmark was extremely small II. For over a century his influence would be small, but when his impact was felt, it was felt hard III. He may be called the Father of Neo- Orthodoxy; his system is call the Theology of Crisis