1. Copyright Irwin/McGraw-Hill 1998 1 Data Modeling Introduction  The presentation will address the following questions:  What is systems modeling and what is the difference between logical and physical system models?  What is data modeling and what are its benefits?  Can you recognize and understand the basic concepts and constructs of a data model?  Can you read and interpret a entity relationship data model?  When in a project are data models constructed and where are they stored?  Can you discover entities and relationships?  Can you construct an entity-relationship context diagram?

2. Copyright Irwin/McGraw-Hill 1998 2 Data Modeling Introduction  The presentation will address the following questions:  Can you discover or invent keys for entities?  Can you construct a fully attributed entity relationship diagram and describe all data structures and attributes to the repository or encyclopedia?

3. Copyright Irwin/McGraw-Hill 1998 3 Data Modeling An Introduction to Systems Modeling  Systems Modeling  One way to structure unstructured problems is to draw models.  A model is a representation of reality. Just as a picture is worth a thousand words, most system models are pictorial representations of reality.  Models can be built for existing systems as a way to better understand those systems, or for proposed systems as a way to document business requirements or technical designs.  What are Logical Models?  Logical models show what a system ‘is’ or ‘does’. They are implementation-independent; that is, they depict the system independent of any technical implementation. As such, logical models illustrate the essence of the system.

4. Copyright Irwin/McGraw-Hill 1998 4 Data Modeling An Introduction to Systems Modeling  Systems Modeling  What are Physical Models?  Physical models show not only what a system ‘is’ or ‘does’, but also how the system is physically and technically implemented. They are implementation-dependent because they reflect technology choices, and the limitations of those technology choices.  Systems analysts use logical system models to depict business requirements, and physical system models to depict technical designs.

5. Copyright Irwin/McGraw-Hill 1998 5 Data Modeling An Introduction to Systems Modeling  Systems Modeling  Systems analysis activities tend to focus on the logical system models for the following reasons:  Logical models remove biases that are the result of the way the current system is implemented or the way that any one person thinks the system might be implemented.  Logical models reduce the risk of missing business requirements because we are too preoccupied with technical details.  Logical models allow us to communicate with end-users in non-technical or less technical languages.

6. Copyright Irwin/McGraw-Hill 1998 6 Data Modeling An Introduction to Systems Modeling  Systems Modeling  Data modeling is a technique for defining business requirements for a database.  Data modeling is a technique for organizing and documenting a system’s DATA. Data modeling is sometimes called database modeling because a data model is usually implemented as a database. It is sometimes called information modeling.  Many experts consider data modeling to be the most important of the modeling techniques.  Why is data modeling considered crucial?  Data is viewed as a resource to be shared by as many processes as possible. As a result, data must be organized in a way that is flexible and adaptable to unanticipated business requirements – and that is the purpose of data modeling.

7. Copyright Irwin/McGraw-Hill 1998 7 Data Modeling An Introduction to Systems Modeling  Systems Modeling  Why is data modeling considered crucial? (continued)  Data structures and properties are reasonably permanent – certainly a great deal more stable than the processes that use the data. Often the data model of a current system is nearly identical to that of the desired system.  Data models are much smaller than process and object models and can be constructed more rapidly.  The process of constructing data models helps analysts and users quickly reach consensus on business terminology and rules.

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9. Copyright Irwin/McGraw-Hill 1998 9 Data Modeling System Concepts for Data Modeling  System Concepts  Most systems analysis techniques are strongly rooted in systems thinking.  Systems thinking is the application of formal systems theory and concepts to systems problem solving.  There are several notations for data modeling, but the actual model is frequently called an entity relationship diagram (ERD).  An ERD depicts data in terms of the entities and relationships described by the data.

10. Copyright Irwin/McGraw-Hill 1998 10 Data Modeling System Concepts for Data Modeling  Entities  All systems contain data.  Data describes ‘things’.  A concept to abstractly represent all instances of a group of similar ‘things’ is called an entity.  An entity is something about which we want to store data. Synonyms include entity type and entity class.  An entity is a class of persons, places, objects, events, or concepts about which we need to capture and store data.  An entity instance is a single occurrence of an entity.

11. Copyright Irwin/McGraw-Hill 1998 11 Data Modeling System Concepts for Data Modeling  Attributes  The pieces of data that we want to store about each instance of a given entity are called attributes.  An attribute is a descriptive property or characteristic of an entity. Synonyms include element, property, and field.  Some attributes can be logically grouped into super-attributes called compound attributes.  A compound attribute is one that actually consists of more primitive attributes. Synonyms in different data modeling languages are numerous: concatenated attribute, composite attribute, and data structure.

12. Copyright Irwin/McGraw-Hill 1998 12 Data Modeling System Concepts for Data Modeling  Attributes  Domains:  The values for each attribute are defined in terms of three properties: data type, domain, and default. The data type for an attribute defines what class of data can be stored in that attribute. For purposes of systems analysis and business requirements definition, it is useful to declare logical (non-technical) data types for our business attributes. An attribute’s data type determines its domain. –The domain of an attribute defines what values an attribute can legitimately take on. Every attribute should have a logical default value. –The default value for an attribute is that value which will be recorded if not specified by the user.

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16. Copyright Irwin/McGraw-Hill 1998 16 Data Modeling System Concepts for Data Modeling  Attributes  Identification:  An entity typically has many instances; perhaps thousands or millions and there exists a need to uniquely identify each instance based on the data value of one or more attributes.  Every entity must have an identifier or key. An key is an attribute, or a group of attributes, which assumes a unique value for each entity instance. It is sometimes called an identifier.  Sometimes more than one attribute is required to uniquely identify an instance of an entity. A group of attributes that uniquely identifies an instance of an entity is called a concatenated key. Synonyms include composite key and compound key.

17. Copyright Irwin/McGraw-Hill 1998 17 Data Modeling System Concepts for Data Modeling  Attributes  Identification:  Frequently, an entity may have more than one key.  Each of these attributes is called a candidate key. A candidate key is a ‘candidate to become the primary identifier’ of instances of an entity. It is sometimes called a candidate identifier. (Note: A candidate key may be a single attribute or a concatenated key.) A primary key is that candidate key which will most commonly be used to uniquely identify a single entity instance. Any candidate key that is not selected to become the primary key is called an alternate key.

18. Copyright Irwin/McGraw-Hill 1998 18 Data Modeling System Concepts for Data Modeling  Attributes  Identification:  Sometimes, it is also necessary to identify a subset of entity instances as opposed to a single instance. For example, we may require a simple way to identify all male students, and all female students. A subsetting criteria is a attribute (or concatenated attribute) whose finite values divide all entity instances into useful subsets. Some methods call this an inversion entry.

19. Copyright Irwin/McGraw-Hill 1998 19 Data Modeling System Concepts for Data Modeling  Relationships  Conceptually, entities and attributes do not exist in isolation.  Entities interact with, and impact one another via relationships to support the business mission.  A relationship is a natural business association that exists between one or more entities. The relationship may represent an event that links the entities, or merely a logical affinity that exists between the entities.  A connecting line between two entities on an ERD represents a relationship.  A verb phrase describes the relationship. All relationships are implicitly bidirectional, meaning that they can interpreted in both directions.

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21. Copyright Irwin/McGraw-Hill 1998 21 Data Modeling System Concepts for Data Modeling  Relationships  Cardinality:  Each relationship on an ERD also depicts the complexity or degree of each relationship and this is called cardinality. Cardinality defines the minimum and maximum number of occurrences of one entity for a single occurrence of the related entity. Because all relationships are bi-directional, cardinality must be defined in both directions for every relationship.

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23. Copyright Irwin/McGraw-Hill 1998 23 Data Modeling System Concepts for Data Modeling  Relationships  Degree:  The degree of a relationship is the number of entities that participate in the relationship. A binary relationship has a degree = 2, because two different entities participated in the relationship.  Relationships may also exist between different instances of the same entity. This is called a recursive relationship (sometimes called a unary relationship; degree = 1).

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25. Copyright Irwin/McGraw-Hill 1998 25 Data Modeling System Concepts for Data Modeling  Relationships  Degree: (continued)  Relationships can also exist between more than two different entities. These are sometimes called N-ary relationships. A relationship existing among three entities is called a 3-ary or ternary relationship. An N-ary relationship maybe associated with an associative entity. –An associative entity is an entity that inherits its primary key from more than one other entity (parents). Each part of that concatenated key points to one and only one instance of each of the connecting entities.

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27. Copyright Irwin/McGraw-Hill 1998 27 Data Modeling System Concepts for Data Modeling  Relationships  Foreign Keys:  A relationship implies that instances of one entity are related to instances of another entity.  To be able to identify those instances for any given entity, the primary key of one entity must be migrated into the other entity as a foreign key. A foreign key is a primary key of one entity that is contributed to (duplicated in) another entity for the purpose of identifying instances of a relationship. A foreign key (always in a child entity) always matches the primary key (in a parent entity).

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29. Copyright Irwin/McGraw-Hill 1998 29 Data Modeling System Concepts for Data Modeling  Relationships  Foreign Keys: (continued)  When you have a relationship that you cannot differentiate between parent and child it is called a non-specific relationship. A non-specific relationship (or many-to-many relationship) is one in which many instances of one entity are associated with many instances of another entity. Such relationships are suitable only for preliminary data models, and should be resolved as quickly as possible. All non-specific relationships can be resolved into a pair of one-to- many relationships by inserting an associative entity between the two original entities.

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31. Copyright Irwin/McGraw-Hill 1998 31 Data Modeling System Concepts for Data Modeling  Relationships  Generalization:  Generalization is an approach that seeks to discover and exploit the commonalties between entities. Generalization is a technique wherein the attributes that are common to several types of an entity are grouped into their own entity, called a supertype. An entity supertype is an entity whose instances store attributes that are common to one or more entity subtypes. –The entity supertype will have one or more one-to-one relationships to entity subtypes. These relationships are sometimes called IS A relationships (or WAS A, or COULD BE A) because each instance of the supertype ‘is also an’ instance of one or more subtypes.

32. Copyright Irwin/McGraw-Hill 1998 32 Data Modeling System Concepts for Data Modeling  Relationships  Generalization: (continued) An entity subtype is an entity whose instances inherit some common attributes from an entity supertype, and then add other attributes that are unique to an instances of the subtype.  An entity can be both a supertype and subtype.  Through inheritance, the concept of generalization in data models permits the the reduction of the number of attributes through the careful sharing of common attributes. The subtypes not only inherit the attributes, but also the data types, domains, and defaults of those attributes. In addition to inheriting attributes, subtypes also inherit relationships to other entities.

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34. Copyright Irwin/McGraw-Hill 1998 34 Data Modeling The Process of Logical Data Modeling  Strategic Data Modeling  Many organizations select application development projects based on strategic information system plans.  Strategic planning is a separate project.  This project produces an information systems strategy plan that defines an overall vision and architecture for information systems. Almost always, the architecture includes an enterprise data model.

35. Copyright Irwin/McGraw-Hill 1998 35 Data Modeling The Process of Logical Data Modeling  Strategic Data Modeling  An enterprise data model typically identifies only the most fundamental of entities.  The entities are typically defined (as in a dictionary) but they are not described in terms of keys or attributes.  The enterprise data model may or may not include relationships (depending on the planning methodology’s standards and the level of detail desired by executive management).  If relationships are included, many of them will be non-specific.  The enterprise data model is usually stored in a corporate repository.

36. Copyright Irwin/McGraw-Hill 1998 36 Data Modeling The Process of Logical Data Modeling  Data Modeling During Systems Analysis  The data model for a single system or application is usually called an application data model.  Logical data models have a DATA focus and a SYSTEM USER perspective.  Logical data models are typically constructed as deliverables of the study and definition phases of a project.  Logical data models are not concerned with implementation details or technology, they may be constructed (through reverse engineering) from existing databases.  Data models are rarely constructed during the survey phase of systems analysis.

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38. Copyright Irwin/McGraw-Hill 1998 38 Data Modeling The Process of Logical Data Modeling  Data Modeling During Systems Analysis  Data modeling is rarely associated with the study phase of systems analysis. Most analysts prefer to draw process models to document the current system.  Many analysts report that data models are far superior for the following reasons: Data models help analysts to quickly identify business vocabulary more completely than process models. Data models are almost always built more quickly than process models. A complete data model can be fit on a single sheet of paper. Process models often require dozens of sheets of paper. Process modelers too easily get hung up on unnecessary detail.

39. Copyright Irwin/McGraw-Hill 1998 39 Data Modeling The Process of Logical Data Modeling  Data Modeling During Systems Analysis  Many analysts report that data models are far superior for the following reasons: (continued) Data models for existing and proposed systems are far more similar than process models for existing and proposed systems. Consequently, there is less work to throw away as you move into later phases.  A study phase model should include only entities relationships, but no attributes – a context data model.  The intent is to refine the understanding of scope; not to get into details about the entities and business rules.

40. Copyright Irwin/McGraw-Hill 1998 40 Data Modeling The Process of Logical Data Modeling  Data Modeling During Systems Analysis  The definition phase data model will be constructed in at least two stages: 1 A key-based data model will be drawn. This model will eliminate non-specific relationships, add associative entities, include primary, alternate keys, and foreign keys, plus precise cardinalities and any generalization hierarchies. 2 A fully attributed data model will be constructed. The fully attributed model includes all remaining descriptive attributes and subsetting criteria. –Each attribute is defined in the repository with data types, domains, and defaults.  The completed data model represents all of the business requirements for a system’s database.

41. Copyright Irwin/McGraw-Hill 1998 41 Data Modeling The Process of Logical Data Modeling  Looking Ahead to Systems Configuration and Design  The logical data model from systems analysis describes business data requirements, not technical solutions.  The purpose of the configuration phase is to determine the best way to implement those requirements with database technology.  During system design, the logical data model will be transformed into a physical data model (called a database schema) for the chosen database management system.  This model will reflect the technical capabilities and limitations of that database technology, as well as the performance tuning requirements suggested by the database administrator.  The physical data model will also be analyzed for adaptability and flexibility through a process called normalization.

42. Copyright Irwin/McGraw-Hill 1998 42 Data Modeling The Process of Logical Data Modeling  Fact-Finding and Information Gathering for Data Modeling  Data models cannot be constructed without appropriate facts and information as supplied by the user community.  These facts can be collected by a number of techniques such as sampling of existing forms and files; research of similar systems; surveys of users and management; and interviews of users and management.  The fastest method of collecting facts and information, and simultaneously constructing and verifying the data models is Joint Application Development (JAD).

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44. Copyright Irwin/McGraw-Hill 1998 44 Data Modeling The Process of Logical Data Modeling  Computer-Aided Systems Engineering (CASE) for Data Modeling  Data models are stored in the repository.  In a sense, the data model is metadata – that is, data about the business’ data.  Computer-aided systems engineering (CASE) technology, provides the repository for storing the data model and its detailed descriptions.

45. Copyright Irwin/McGraw-Hill 1998 45 Data Modeling The Process of Logical Data Modeling  Computer-Aided Systems Engineering (CASE) for Data Modeling  Using a CASE product, you can easily create professional, readable data models without the use of paper, pencil, erasers, and templates.  The models can be easily modified to reflect corrections and changes suggested by end-users.  Most CASE products provide powerful analytical tools that can check your models for mechanical errors, completeness, and consistency.

46. Copyright Irwin/McGraw-Hill 1998 46 Data Modeling The Process of Logical Data Modeling  Computer-Aided Systems Engineering (CASE) for Data Modeling  Not all data model conventions are supported by all CASE products.  It is very likely that any given CASE product may force the company to adapt their methodology’s data modeling symbols or approach so that it is workable within the limitations of their CASE tool.

47. Copyright Irwin/McGraw-Hill 1998 47 Data Modeling How to Construct Data Models  1st Step - Entity Discovery  The first task in data modeling is to discover those fundamental entities in the system that are or might be described by data.  There are several techniques that may be used to identify entities.  During interviews or JAD sessions with system owners and users, pay attention to key words in their discussion.  During interviews or JAD sessions, specifically ask the system owners and users to identify things about which they would like to capture, store, and produce information.  Study existing forms and files.  Some CASE tools can reverse engineer existing files and databases into physical data models.

48. Copyright Irwin/McGraw-Hill 1998 48 Data Modeling How to Construct Data Models  1st Step - Entity Discovery  A true entity has multiple instances—dozens, hundreds, thousands, or more!  Entities should be named with nouns that describe the person, event, place, or tangible thing about which we want to store data.  Try not to abbreviate or use acronyms.  Names should be singular so as to distinguish the logical concept of the entity from the actual instances of the entity.  Define each entity in business terms.  Don’t define the entity in technical terms, and don’t define it as ‘data about …’.  Your entity names and definitions should establish an initial glossary of business terminology that will serve both you and future analysts and users for years to come.

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50. Copyright Irwin/McGraw-Hill 1998 50 Data Modeling How to Construct Data Models  2nd Step - The Context Data Model  The second task in data modeling is to construct the context data model.  The context data model includes the fundamental or independent entities that were previously discovered. An independent entity is one which exists regardless of the existence of any other entity. Its primary key contain no attributes that would make it dependent on the existence of another entity. Independent entities are almost always the first entities discovered in your conversations with the users.  Relationships should be named with verb phrases that, when combined with the entity names, form simple business sentences or assertions. Always name the relationship from parent-to-child.

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52. Copyright Irwin/McGraw-Hill 1998 52 Data Modeling How to Construct Data Models  3rd Step - The Key-Based Data Model  The third task is to identify the keys of each entity.  The following guidelines are suggested for keys:  The value of a key should not change over the lifetime of each entity instance.  The value of a key cannot be null.  Controls must be installed to ensure that the value of a key is valid.

53. Copyright Irwin/McGraw-Hill 1998 53 Data Modeling How to Construct Data Models  3rd Step - The Key-Based Data Model  The following guidelines are suggested for keys: (continued)  Some experts suggest that you avoid intelligent keys because the key may change over the lifetime of the entity instance. An intelligent key is a business code whose structure communicates data about an entity instance (such as its classification, size, or other properties). A code is a group of characters and/or digits that identifies and describes something in the business system.  Other experts suggest that you avoid intelligent keys because business codes can return value to the organization because they can be quickly processed by humans without the assistance of a computer.

54. Copyright Irwin/McGraw-Hill 1998 54 Data Modeling How to Construct Data Models  3rd Step - The Key-Based Data Model  The following guidelines are suggested for keys: (continued)  Consider inventing a surrogate key instead to substitute for large concatenated keys of independent entities. This suggestion is not practical for associative entities since because each part of the concatenated key is a foreign key that must precisely match its parent entity’s primary key.  If you cannot define keys for an entity, it may be that the entity doesn’t really exist—that is, multiple occurrences of the so-called entity do not exist.

55. Copyright Irwin/McGraw-Hill 1998 55 Data Modeling How to Construct Data Models  3rd Step - The Key-Based Data Model  Business Codes  There are several types of codes and they can be combined to form effective means for entity instance identification. Serial codes assign sequentially generated numbers to entity instances. –Many database management systems can generate and constrain serial codes to a business’ requirements. Block codes are similar to serial codes except that serial numbers are divided into groups that have some business meaning. Alphabetic codes use finite combinations of letters (and possibly numbers) to describe entity instances. –Alphabetic codes must usually be combined with serial or block codes in order to uniquely identify instances of most entities.

56. Copyright Irwin/McGraw-Hill 1998 56 Data Modeling How to Construct Data Models  3rd Step - The Key-Based Data Model  Business Codes  There are several types of codes and they can be combined to form effective means for entity instance identification. (continued) In significant position codes, each digit or group of digits describes a measurable or identifiable characteristic of the entity instance. –Significant digit codes are frequently used to code inventory items. Hierarchical codes provide a top-down interpretation for an entity instance. –Every item coded is factored into groups, subgroups, and so forth.

57. Copyright Irwin/McGraw-Hill 1998 57 Data Modeling How to Construct Data Models  3rd Step - The Key-Based Data Model  Business Codes  The following guidelines are suggested when creating a business coding scheme: Codes should be expandable to accommodate growth. The full code must result in a unique value for each entity instance. Codes should be large enough to describe the distinguishing characteristics, but small enough to be interpreted by people without a computer. Codes should be convenient. A new instance should be easy to create.

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59. Copyright Irwin/McGraw-Hill 1998 59 Data Modeling How to Construct Data Models  4th Step - Generalized Hierarchies  At this time, it would be useful to identify any generalization hierarchies in a business problem.

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61. Copyright Irwin/McGraw-Hill 1998 61 Data Modeling How to Construct Data Models  5th Step - The Fully Attributed Data Model  The fifth task is to identify the remaining data attributes.  The following guidelines are offered for attribution. Many organizations have naming standards and approved abbreviations. –The data or repository administrator usually maintains such standards. Many attributes share common base names such as NAME, ADDRESS, DATE. –Unless the attributes can be generalized into a supertype, it is best to give each variation a unique name such as: CUSTOMER NAME vs SUPPLIER NAME –Names must be distinguishable across projects. Logical attribute names should not be abbreviated.

62. Copyright Irwin/McGraw-Hill 1998 62 Data Modeling How to Construct Data Models  5th Step - The Fully Attributed Data Model  The following guidelines are offered for attribution. (continued) For attributes that have only YES or NO values, name as questions. – For example, CANDIDATE FOR A DEGREE? Each attribute should be mapped to only one entity. –Foreign keys are the exception – they identify associated instances of related entities. An attribute’s domain should not be based on logic.

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64. Copyright Irwin/McGraw-Hill 1998 64 Data Modeling How to Construct Data Models  6th Step - The Fully Described Model  The last task is to fully describe the data model.  This task is the most time consuming.  This task can be started in parallel with the key-based model or fully attributed model, but it is usually the last data modeling task completed.  At this time the descriptions for the attributes are still incomplete – they require domains. Most CASE tools provide extensive facilities for describing the data types, domains, and defaults for all attributes to the repository.

65. Copyright Irwin/McGraw-Hill 1998 65 Data Modeling How to Construct Data Models  6th Step - The Fully Described Model  Additional descriptive properties may be recorded for attributes such as: Who should be able to create, delete, update, and access each attribute? How long should each attribute (or entity) be kept before the data is deleted or archived?

66. Copyright Irwin/McGraw-Hill 1998 66 Data Modeling The Next Generation  Data modeling should remain a value-added skill for many years.  The demand for data modeling as a skill is dependent on two factors:  (1) the need for databases, and  (2) the use of relational database management system technology to implement those databases. There is some belief that relational database technology will eventually be replaced by object technology. If that were to happen, data modeling would be replaced by object modeling techniques. Even as object database technology becomes available, we expect the relational database industry to add object features and technologies to their product lines.

67. Copyright Irwin/McGraw-Hill 1998 67 Data Modeling The Next Generation  CASE technology will continue to improve.  Today’s better CASE tools provide a two-way synchronization between the logical data models and their database designs.  This synchronization will likely extend as CASE vendors enable their tools to directly communicate and interoperate with database management systems and working databases.

68. Copyright Irwin/McGraw-Hill 1998 68 Data Modeling Summary  Introduction  An Introduction to Systems Modeling  System Concepts for Data Modeling  The Process of Logical Data Modeling  How to Construct Data Models  The Next Generation