1. Chapter 6 IPv4 Addresses – Part 3 CIS 81 Networking Fundamentals Rick Graziani Cabrillo College graziani@cabrillo.edu Last Updated: 4/13/2008

2. 2 Topics Calculating the number subnets/hosts needed VLSM (Variable Length Subnet Masks) Classful Subnetting IPv6 ICMP: Ping and Traceroute

3. Calculating the number subnets/hosts needed

4. 4 Network 172.16.1.0/24 Need:  As many subnets as possible, 60 hosts per subnet 172.16.1.0 NetworkHost 255.255.255.0

5. 5 Calculating the number subnets/hosts needed Network 172.16.1.0/24 Need:  As many subnets as possible, 60 hosts per subnet 172.16.1. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 NetworkHost 6 host bits 255.255.255. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Number of hosts per subnet

6. 6 Calculating the number subnets/hosts needed Network 172.16.1.0/24 Need:  As many subnets as possible, 60 hosts per subnet New Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.192 (/26)  Number of Hosts per subnet: 6 bits, 64-2 hosts, 62 hosts  Number of Subnets: 2 bits or 4 subnets 172.16.1. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 NetworkHost 6 host bits 255.255.255. 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 255.255.255.192 Number of subnets

7. 7 Calculating the number subnets/hosts needed Network 172.16.1.0/24 Need:  As many subnets as possible, 12 hosts per subnet 172.16.1.0 NetworkHost 255.255.255.0

8. 8 Calculating the number subnets/hosts needed Network 172.16.1.0/24 Need:  As many subnets as possible, 12 hosts per subnet 172.16.1. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 NetworkHost 4 host bits 255.255.255. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Number of hosts per subnet

9. 9 Calculating the number subnets/hosts needed Network 172.16.1.0/24 Need:  As many subnets as possible, 12 hosts per subnet New Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.240 (/28)  Number of Hosts per subnet: 4 bits, 16-2 hosts, 14 hosts  Number of Subnets: 4 bits or 16 subnets 172.16.1. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 NetworkHost 4 host bits 255.255.255. 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 255.255.255.240 Number of subnets Number of hosts per subnet

10. 10 Calculating the number subnets/hosts needed Network 172.16.1.0/24 Need:  Need 6 subnets, as many hosts per subnet as possible 172.16.1.0 NetworkHost 255.255.255.0

11. 11 Calculating the number subnets/hosts needed Network 172.16.1.0/24 Need:  Need 6 subnets, as many hosts per subnet as possible 172.16.1. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 NetworkHost 3 subnet bits 255.255.255. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Number of subnets

12. 12 Calculating the number subnets/hosts needed Network 172.16.1.0/24 Need:  Need 6 subnets, as many hosts per subnet as possible New Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.224 (/27)  Number of Hosts per subnet: 5 bits, 32-2 hosts, 30 hosts  Number of Subnets: 3 bits or 8 subnets 172.16.1. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 NetworkHost 3 subnet bits 255.255.255. 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 Number of subnets 255.255.255.224 Number of hosts per subnet

13. VLSM (Variable Length Subnet Masks)

14. 14 VLSM If you know how to subnet, you can do VLSM. Example: 10.0.0.0/8  Subnet in /16 subnets:  10.0.0.0/16  10.1.0.0/16  10.2.0.0/16  10.3.0.0/16  Etc.  Subnet one of the subnets (10.1.0.0/16)  10.1.0.0/24  10.1.1.0/24  10.1.2.0/24  10.1.3.0/24  etc

15. 15 VLSM All other /16 subnets are still available for use as /16 networks or to be subnetted. Host can only be a member of the subnet. Host can NOT be a member of the network that was subnetted. 10.2.1.55/24 10.2.1.55/16 NO! YES!

16. 16 VLSM – Using the chart This chart can be used to help determine subnet addresses. This can any octet. We’ll keep it simple and make it the fourth octet. Network: 172.16.1.0/24  What if we needed 10 subnets with a minimum of 12 hosts?  What would the Mask be?  What would the addresses of each subnet be?  What would the range of hosts be for each subnet?

17. 17 VLSM – Using the chart Network: 172.16.1.0/24  What if we needed 5 subnets?  What would the Mask be?  255.255.255.240 (/28)  What would the addresses of each subnet be?  172.16.1.0/28  172.16.1.32/28  172.16.1.64/28  172.16.1.96/28  172.16.1.128/28  172.16.1.160/28  172.16.1.192/28  172.16.1.224/28  What would the range of valid hosts for each subnet?  172.16.1.0/26: 172.16.1.1-172.16.1.31  172.16.1.32/26: 172.16.1.33-172.16.1.62  172.16.1.64/26: 172.16.1.65-172.16.1.94  172.16.1.96/26: 172.16.1.97-172.16.1.126  Etc.

18. 18 VLSM – Using the chart What if we needed several (four) /30 subnets for our serial links? Take one of the /27 subnets and subnet it again into /30 subnets. Still have 7 /27 subnets 16 /30 subnets

19. Classful Subnetting

20. 20 Classful IP Addressing In the early days of the Internet, IP addresses were allocated to organizations based on request rather than actual need. When an organization received an IP network address, that address was associated with a “Class”, A, B, or C. This is known as Classful IP Addressing The first octet of the address determined what class the network belonged to and which bits were the network bits and which bits were the host bits. There were no subnet masks. It was not until 1992 when the IETF introduced CIDR (Classless Interdomain Routing), making the address class meaning less. This is known as Classless IP Addressing. For now, all you need to know is that today’s networks are classless, except for some things like the structure of Cisco’s IP routing table and for those networks that still use Classful routing protocols. You will learn more about this is CIS 82, CIS 83 and CIS 185.

21. 21 IPv4 Address Classes

22. 22 Address Classes Class A Class B Class C NetworkHost Network Host Network Host 1st octet2nd octet3rd octet4th octet N = Network number assigned by ARIN (American Registry for Internet Numbers) H = Host number assigned by administrator

23. 23 Class A addresses NetworkHost First octet is between 0 – 127, begins with 0 Number between 0 - 127 8 bits With 24 bits available for hosts, there a 2 24 possible addresses. That’s 16,777,216 nodes! There are 126 class A addresses.  0 and 127 have special meaning and are not used. 16,777,214 host addresses, one for network address and one for broadcast address. Only large organizations such as the military, government agencies, universities, and large corporations have class A addresses. For example ISPs have 24.0.0.0 and 63.0.0.0 Class A addresses account for 2,147,483,648 of the possible IPv4 addresses. That’s 50 % of the total unicast address space, if classful was still used in the Internet! Default Mask: 255.0.0.0 (/8)

24. 24 Class B addresses Network Host First octet is between 128 – 191, begins with 10 Number between 128 - 191 8 bits With 16 bits available for hosts, there a 2 16 possible addresses. That’s 65,536 nodes! There are 16,384 (2 14 ) class B networks. 65,534 host addresses, one for network address and one for broadcast address. Class B addresses represent 25% of the total IPv4 unicast address space. Class B addresses are assigned to large organizations including corporations (such as Cisco, government agencies, and school districts). Default Mask: 255.255.0.0 (/16)

25. 25 Class C addresses Network Host First octet is between 192 – 223, begins with 110 Number between 192 - 223 8 bits With 8 bits available for hosts, there a 2 8 possible addresses. That’s 256 nodes! There are 2,097,152 possible class C networks. 254 host addresses, one for network address and one for broadcast address. Class C addresses represent 12.5% of the total IPv4 unicast address space. Default Mask: 255.255.255.0 (/24)

26. 26 IPv4 Address Classes No medium size host networks In the early days of the Internet, IP addresses were allocated to organizations based on request rather than actual need.

27. 27 Network based on first octet The network portion of the IP address was dependent upon the first octet. There was no “Base Network Mask” provided by the ISP. The network mask was inherent in the address itself.

28. 28 IPv4 Address Classes Class D Addresses A Class D address begins with binary 1110 in the first octet. First octet range 224 to 239. Class D address can be used to represent a group of hosts called a host group, or multicast group. Class E Addresses First octet of an IP address begins with 1111 Class E addresses are reserved for experimental purposes and should not be used for addressing hosts or multicast groups.

29. 29 Fill in the information… 1. 192.168.1.3Class _____Default Mask:______________ Network: _________________Broadcast: ________________ Hosts: _________________ through ___________________ 2. 1.12.100.31Class ______Default Mask:______________ Network: _________________Broadcast: ________________ Hosts: _________________ through _____________________ 3. 172.30.77.5Class ______Default Mask:______________ Network: _________________Broadcast: ________________ Hosts: _________________ through _____________________

30. 30 Fill in the information… 1. 192.168.1.3Class CDefault Mask: 255.255.255.0 Network: 192.168.1.0Broadcast: 192.168.1.255 Hosts: 192.168.1.1 through 192.168.1.254 2. 1.12.100.31Class A Default Mask: 255.0.0.0 Network: 1.0.0.0Broadcast: 1.255.255.255 Hosts: 1.0.0.1 through 1.255.255.254 3. 172.30.77.5Class B Default Mask: 255.255.0.0 Network: 172.30.0.0Broadcast: 172.30.255.255 Hosts: 172.30.0.1. through 172.30.255.254

31. 31 Class separates network from host bits The Class determines the Base Network Mask! 1. 192.168.1.3Class CDefault Mask: 255.255.255.0 Network: 192.168.1.0 2. 1.12.100.31Class A Default Mask: 255.0.0.0 Network: 1.0.0.0 3. 172.30.77.5Class B Default Mask: 255.255.0.0 Network: 172.30.0.0

32. 32 Know the classes! First First Network Host Class Bits Octet Bits Bits A 0 0 – 127 8 24 B 10 128 - 191 16 16 C 110 192 - 223 24 8 D 1110 224 – 239 E 1111 240 - 255

33. 33 IP addressing crisis Address Depletion Internet Routing Table Explosion

34. 34 IPv4 Addressing Subnet Mask One solution to the IP address shortage was thought to be the subnet mask. Formalized in 1985 (RFC 950), the subnet mask breaks a single class A, B or C network in to smaller pieces. This does allow a network administrator to divide their network into subnets. Routers still associated an network address with the first octet of the IP address.

35. 35 All Zeros and All Ones Subnets Using the All Ones Subnet There is no command to enable or disable the use of the all-ones subnet, it is enabled by default. Router(config)#ip subnet-zero The use of the all-ones subnet has always been explicitly allowed and the use of subnet zero is explicitly allowed since Cisco IOS version 12.0. RFC 1878 states, "This practice (of excluding all-zeros and all-ones subnets) is obsolete! Modern software will be able to utilize all definable networks." Today, the use of subnet zero and the all-ones subnet is generally accepted and most vendors support their use, though, on certain networks, particularly the ones using legacy software, the use of subnet zero and the all-ones subnet can lead to problems. CCO: Subnet Zero and the All-Ones Subnet http://www.cisco.com/en/US/tech/tk648/tk361/technologies_tech_note091 86a0080093f18.shtml

36. 36 Long Term Solution: IPv6 (coming) IPv6, or IPng (IP – the Next Generation) uses a 128-bit address space, yielding 340,282,366,920,938,463,463,374,607,431,768,211,456 possible addresses. IPv6 has been slow to arrive IPv6 requires new software; IT staffs must be retrained IPv6 will most likely coexist with IPv4 for years to come. Some experts believe IPv4 will remain for more than 10 years.

37. 37 Short Term Solutions: IPv4 Enhancements Discussed in CIS 83 and CIS 185 CIDR (Classless Inter-Domain Routing) – RFCs 1517, 1518, 1519, 1520 VLSM (Variable Length Subnet Mask) – RFC 1009 Private Addressing - RFC 1918 NAT/PAT (Network Address Translation / Port Address Translation) – RFC  More later when we discuss TCP

38. 38 11111111.00000000.00000000.00000000 /8 (255.0.0.0)16,777,216 host addresses 11111111.10000000.00000000.00000000 /9 (255.128.0.0)8,388,608 host addresses 11111111.11000000.00000000.00000000 /10 (255.192.0.0)4,194,304 host addresses 11111111.11100000.00000000.00000000 /11 (255.224.0.0)2,097,152 host addresses 11111111.11110000.00000000.00000000 /12 (255.240.0.0)1,048,576 host addresses 11111111.11111000.00000000.00000000 /13 (255.248.0.0)524,288 host addresses 11111111.11111100.00000000.00000000 /14 (255.252.0.0)262,144 host addresses 11111111.11111110.00000000.00000000 /15 (255.254.0.0)131,072 host addresses 11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000 /16 (255.255.0.0)65,536 host addresses 11111111.11111111.10000000.00000000 /17 (255.255.128.0)32,768 host addresses 11111111.11111111.11000000.00000000 /18 (255.255.192.0)16,384 host addresses 11111111.11111111.11100000.00000000 /19 (255.255.224.0)8,192 host addresses 11111111.11111111.11110000.00000000 /20 (255.255.240.0)4,096 host addresses 11111111.11111111.11111000.00000000 /21 (255.255.248.0)2,048 host addresses 11111111.11111111.11111100.00000000 /22 (255.255.252.0)1,024 host addresses 11111111.11111111.11111110.00000000 /23 (255.255.254.0)512 host addresses 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000 /24 (255.255.255.0)256 host addresses 11111111.11111111.11111111.10000000 /25 (255.255.255.128)128 host addresses 11111111.11111111.11111111.11000000 /26 (255.255.255.192)64 host addresses 11111111.11111111.11111111.11100000 /27 (255.255.255.224)32 host addresses 11111111.11111111.11111111.11110000 /28 (255.255.255.240)16 host addresses 11111111.11111111.11111111.11111000 /29 (255.255.255.248)8 host addresses 11111111.11111111.11111111.11111100 /30 (255.255.255.252)4 host addresses 11111111.11111111.11111111.11111110 /31 (255.255.255.254)2 host addresses 11111111.11111111.11111111.11111111 /32 (255.255.255.255)“Host Route” ISPs no longer restricted to three classes. Can now allocate a large range of network addresses based on customer requirements

39. 39 Active BGP entries – March, 2006 http://bgp.potaroo.net/

40. 40 ISP/NAP Hierarchy - “The Internet: Still hierarchical after all these years.” Jeff Doyle (Tries to be anyways!)

41. IPv6

42. 42 Why Do We Need a Larger Address Space? Internet population  Approximately 973 million users in November 2005  Emerging population and geopolitical and address space Mobile users  PDA, pen-tablet, notepad, and so on  Approximately 20 million in 2004 Mobile phones  Already 1 billion mobile phones delivered by the industry Transportation  1 billion automobiles forecast for 2008  Internet access in planes – Example: Lufthansa Consumer devices  Sony mandated that all its products be IPv6-enabled by 2005  Billions of home and industrial appliances

43. 43 IP Address Allocation History 1981, IPv4 Protocol was published. 1985, 1/16 of IPv4 address space in use. 2001, 2/3 of IPv4 address space in use.

44. 44 IPv4 32 bits or 4 bytes long 4,200,000,000 possible addressable nodes IPv6 128 bits or 16 bytes: four times the bits of IPv4 3.4 * 10 38 possible addressable nodes 340,282,366,920,938,463,374,607,432,768,211,456 5 * 10 28 addresses per person 50,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 Larger Address Space

45. 45 Larger Address Space Enables Address Aggregation Aggregation of prefixes announced in the global routing table Efficient and scalable routing

46. 46 IPv6 Address assignment features: Using DHCP and Stateless Autoconfiguration. Built-in Support for Mobility: IPv6 supports mobility such that IPv6 hosts can move around the Internetwork, retain their IPv6 address and without losing current application sessions. Aggregation: IPv6’s huge address space makes for much easier aggregation of blocks of addresses in the Internet, making routing in the Internet more efficient. No need for NAT/PAT: The huge public IPv6 address space removes the need for NAT/PAT, which avoids some NAT-induced application problems and makes for more efficient routing. No Broadcasts: IPv6 does not use layer 3 broadcast addresses, instead relying on multicasts to reach multiple hosts. Transition tools: IPv6 has many rich tools to help with the transition from IPv4 to IPv6.

47. 47 Three types of IPv6 Addresses The three types of IPv6 address follow: 1.Unicast  Global Unicast  Link Local Unicast  Unique Local Unicast 2.Multicast 3.Anycast Unlike IPv4, there is no IPv6 broadcast address. There is, however, an "all nodes" multicast address, which serves essentially the same purpose as a broadcast address.

48. 48 Unicast Addresses A unicast address is an address that identifies a single device. A global unicast address is a unicast address that is globally unique.  Has global scope.  Globally unique and can therefore be routed globally with no modification.

49. 49 Global Unicast Addresses Note: This format, specified in RFC 3587, obsoletes and simplifies an earlier format that divided the IPv6 unicast address into Top Level Aggregator (TLA), Next-Level Aggregator (NLA), and other fields. However, you should be aware that this obsolescence is relatively recent and you are likely to encounter some books and documents that show the old IPv6 address format. Replaced with

50. 50 Unicast Addresses The host portion of the address is called the Interface ID. Host can have more than one IPv6 interface Address more correctly identifies an interface on a host than a host itself. A single interface can have multiple IPv6 addresses, and can have an IPv4 address in addition.

51. 51 Unicast Addresses Another big difference between IPv4 addresses and IPv6 addresses: location of the Subnet Identifier Subnet Identifier is part of the network portion of the address rather than the host portion.

52. 52 Unicast Addresses The Interface ID is a consistent size for all IPv6 addresses, simplifying the parsing of the address. And making the Subnet ID a part of the network portion creates a clear separation of functions:  The network portion provides the location of a device down to the specific data link and  the host portion provides the identity of the device on the data link.

53. 53 Background IPv4 will exist for some time, as the transition begins to IPv6. Other new protocols have been developed in support of IPv6:  Routing protocols (OSPFv3) so routers can learn about IPv6 network addresses.  ICMPv6

54. ICMP

55. 55

56. ICMP: Ping and Trace

57. 57 ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol) ICMP: A Layer 3 protocol Used for sending messages Encapsulated in a Layer 3, IP packet Uses Type and Code fields for various messages Partial list

58. 58 ICMP Unreachable Destination or Service Used to notify a host that the destination or service is unreachable. When a host or router receives a packet that it cannot deliver, it may send an ICMP Destination Unreachable packet to the host originating the packet. The Destination Unreachable packet will contain codes that indicate why the packet could not be delivered. From a router:  0 = network unreachable – Does not have a route in the routing table  1 = host unreachable – Has a route but can’t find host. (end router) From a host:  2 = protocol unreachable  3 = port unreachable  Service is not available because no daemon is running providing the service or because security on the host is not allowing access to the service.

59. 59 172.30.1.20172.30.1.25

60. 60 Ping Uses ICMP message encapsulated within an IP Packet  Protocol field = 1 Does not use TCP or UDP Format ping ip address (or ping for extended ping) ping 172.30.1.25

61. 61 Echo Request The sender of the ping, transmits an ICMP message, “Echo Request” Echo Request - Within ICMP Message Type = 8 Code = 0

62. 62 Echo Reply The IP address (destination) of the ping, receives the ICMP message, “Echo Request” The ip address (destination) of the ping, returns the ICMP message, “Echo Reply” Echo Reply - Within ICMP Message Type = 0 Code = 0

63. 63 Ping example

64. 64 Q: Are pings forwarded by routers? A: Yes! This is why you can ping devices all over the Internet. Q: Do all devices forward or respond to pings? A: No, this is up to the network administrator of the device. Devices, including routers, can be configured not to reply to pings (ICMP echo requests). This is why you may not always be able to ping a device. Also, routers can be configured not to forward pings destined for other devices. Pings may fail

65. 65 Traceroute Traceroute is a utility that records the route (router IP addresses) between two devices on different networks.

66. 66 Tracroute http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traceroute On modern Unix and Linux-based operating systems, the traceroute utility by default uses UDP datagrams with a destination port number starting at 33434. The traceroute utility usually has an option to specify use of ICMP echo request (type 8) instead. The Windows utility uses ICMP echo request, better known as ping packets. Some firewalls on the path being investigated may block UDP probes but allow the ICMP echo request traffic to pass through. There are also traceroute implementations sending out TCP packets, such as tcptraceroute or Layer Four Trace. In Microsoft Windows, traceroute is named tracert. A new utility, pathping, was introduced with Windows NT, combining ping and traceroute functionality. All these traceroutes rely on ICMP (type 11) packets coming back.

67. 67 Trace ( Cisco = traceroute, tracert,…) is used to trace the probable path a packet takes between source and destination. Probable, because IP is a connectionless protocol, and different packets may take different paths between the same source and destination networks, although this is not usually the case. Trace will show the path the packet takes to the destination, but the return path may be different.  This is more likely the case in the Internet, and less likely within your own autonomous system. Linux/Unix Systems  Uses ICMP message within an IP Packet  Both are layer 3 protocols.  Uses UDP as a the transport layer.  We will see why this is important in a moment. Trace (Traceroute)

68. 68 Format (trace, traceroute, tracert) RTA# traceroute ip address RTA# traceroute 192.168.10.2 Trace

69. 69 How it works (using UDP) - Fooling the routers & host! Traceroute uses ping (echo requests) Traceroute sets the TTL (Time To Live) field in the IP Header, initially to “1” When a router receives an IP Packet, it decrements the TTL by 1. If the TTL is 0, it will not forward the IP Packet, and send back to the source an ICMP “time exceeded” message. Trace

70. 70 RTB - TTL: When a router receives an IP Packet, it decrements the TTL by 1. If the TTL is 0, it will not forward the IP Packet, and send back to the source an ICMP “time exceeded” message. ICMP Message: Type = 11, Code = 0 Trace

71. 71 RTB Sends back a ICMP Time Exceeded message back to the source, using its IP address for the source IP address. Router B’s IP header includes its own IP address (source IP) and the sending host’s IP address (dest. IP).

72. 72 RTA, Sending Host The traceroute program of the sending host (RTA) will use the source IP address of this ICMP Time Exceeded packet to display at the first hop. RTA# traceroute 192.168.10.2 Type escape sequence to abort. Tracing the route to 192.168.10.2 1 10.0.0.2 4 msec 4 msec 4 msec

73. 73 RTA The traceroute program increments the TTL by 1 (now 2 ) and resends the ICMP Echo Request packet.

74. 74 RTB This time RTB decrements the TTL by 1 and it is NOT 0. (It is 1.) So it looks up the destination ip address in its routing table and forwards it on to the next router. RTC RTC however decrements the TTL by 1 and it is 0. RTC notices the TTL is 0 and sends back the ICMP Time Exceeded message back to the source. RTC’s IP header includes its own IP address (source IP) and the sending host’s IP address (destination IP address of RTA). The sending host, RTA, will use the source IP address of this ICMP Time Exceeded message to display at the second hop.

75. 75. RTA to RTB RTB to RTC RTC to RTA

76. 76 The sending host, RTA: The traceroute program uses this information (Source IP Address) and displays the second hop. RTA# traceroute 192.168.10.2 Type escape sequence to abort. Tracing the route to 192.168.10.2 1 10.0.0.2 4 msec 4 msec 4 msec 2 172.16.0.2 20 msec 16 msec 16 msec

77. 77 The sending host, RTA: The traceroute program increments the TTL by 1 (now 3 ) and resends the Packet.

78. 78. RTA to RTB RTB to RTC RTC to RTD

79. 79 RTB This time RTB decrements the TTL by 1 and it is NOT 0. (It is 2.) So it looks up the destination ip address in its routing table and forwards it on to the next router. RTC This time RTC decrements the TTL by 1 and it is NOT 0. (It is 1.) So it looks up the destination ip address in its routing table and forwards it on to the next router. RTD RTD however decrements the TTL by 1 and it is 0. However, RTD notices that the Destination IP Address of 192.168.0.2 is it’s own interface. Since it does not need to forward the packet, the TTL of 0 has no affect.

80. 80 RTD RTD sends the packet to the UDP process. UDP examines the unrecognizable port number of 35,000 and sends back an ICMP Port Unreachable message to the sender, RTA, using Type 3 and Code 3.

81. 81 Sending host, RTA RTA receives the ICMP Port Unreachable message. The traceroute program uses this information (Source IP Address) and displays the third hop. The traceroute program also recognizes this Port Unreachable message as meaning this is the destination it was tracing.

82. 82 Sending host, RTA RTA, the sending host, now displays the third hop. Getting the ICMP Port Unreachable message, it knows this is the final hop and does not send any more traces (echo requests). RTA# traceroute 192.168.10.2 Type escape sequence to abort. Tracing the route to 192.168.10.2 1 10.0.0.2 4 msec 4 msec 4 msec 2 172.16.0.2 20 msec 16 msec 16 msec 3 192.168.10.2 16 msec 16 msec 16 msec

83. 83 For more information on ICMP and other TCP/IP topics, I recommend: TCP/IP Illustrated, Volume I – R.W. Stevens Recommended Reading

84. Chapter 6 IPv4 Addresses – Part 3 CIS 81 Networking Fundamentals Rick Graziani Cabrillo College graziani@cabrillo.edu Last Updated: 4/13/2008