1. Review: The Main Perspectives Functional Theory derived from Durkheim Conflict Theories derived from Marx Interactional Theories derived from Weber

2. Review: Functional theory Concepts: function; norm; solidarity; social integration; normative integration; structural differentiation; organic solidarity. E.g. Durkheim’s theories of suicide, crime and punishment, and division of labor The institutions of society are functionally interconnected. An anthropological example: the kula.

3. Review: Conflict theory Central question: Who gets what and why? Structures of inequality, class and stratification are very important. The rules of the game are usually devised by those with resources, and so they often function as a game of Monopoly, to preserve privilege. An anthropological example: Ilongot headhunting

4. Review: Feedbacks Positive Feedbacks: – self-reinforcing processes –Amplifying –Central to conflict theory. Negative feedbacks: –Control processes –Homeostatic –Central to functional theory.

5. Data, Empirical methods, and Statistics A basic element of any science is its empirical access to the world. “You can prove anything you want with statistics.” *63 “You can prove anything you want without statistics, too! At least with data what is proved is more than just your opinion – or mine.” *63

6. The empirical data of the early sociologists To the extent that the world is complex, one’s methods of collecting and analyzing data must be sophisticated. Durkheim and the Chicago sociologists concentrated on the data already collected by government agencies: things like suicide rates or rates of juvenile delinquency. Some sociologists use such data, but it is limited because it was not collected to help understand social causality.

7. The main sources of data in sociology today 1. Experimentation. 2. Participant Observation. 3. Survey Research. Each has some strengths and some weaknesses.

8. Experiments For establishing causality, a controlled experiment has great advantages. However, generalization of experimental findings to the “real world” is problematic. For example, replication and applicability of the Zimbardo experiment have been debated.

9. Participant observation The method analogous to anthropology is direct observation – e.g. urban ethnographies. There have been many ethnographies analogous to the movie, 187, –And we shall examine some of them. –But in direct observation of a concrete situation there are problems both of interpretation and of generalizability.

10. Survey research Therefore, the most commonly used method in sociology is survey research. –Asking questions of a large sample. –Virtually every chapter of Sociology, Micro, Macro and Mega will illustrate points with survey findings. –Usually these are taken from the General Social Survey, –And analyzed in a cross-tabulation.

11. Thinking in systems terms One of the main limitations of such data are that they ignore context, the operation of indefinitely many other variables, and reciprocal effects. Therefore, we shall also want to consider those other, systemic effects.

12. Charles Murray Conservative theorist at the American Enterprise Institute Argues against welfare, affirmative action, and social policies aimed at reducing inequalities of opportunity. What It Means to be a Libertarian argues against most of the social policies of the Progressive Era and the New Deal such as minimum wage, child labor, Food and Drug administration, and Social Security

13. The trendline Test Since all of these programs are backed by popular “good intentions,” Murray must show that social and government programs are almost invariably ineffective. The example of traffic fatalities is designed to make the “hard case,” to deal with laws and policies that are generally viewed as functionally necessary. Do speed limits save lives?

14. Do Speed limits same lives? Murray argues, “NO!” If you plot the over-all trend of traffic fatalities per million miles traveled, it has a generally downward slope, And the lower speed limits following the oil crisis did not hasten this downward movement, Which Murray ascribes to better cars, better highways, and the market rather than government.

15. Some specific Problems with Murray’s analysis 1: What range of speed is involved: the lowered speed limit was not designed to reduce fatalities, and no one thought it would do so 2: What highways: the lower speed limits were only on the interstates. Most fatalities are local. Murray’s data is not confined to interstates. 3. Better cars, better highways, and inspections (which Murray thinks lowered fatalities) are the result of the kinds of policies he opposes.

16. A more general issue Murray confines his analysis to 2 variables with no feedbacks –assuming that limits affect fatalities, but fatalities cannot affect limits. –This is analogous to a classic fallacy –That fire engines do not decrease fire damage. –Looking at functional feedbacks avoids the fallacy.

17. The fire engine fallacy Suppose one were to decide on whether to have a public fire company by seeing whether there was greater or lesser damage when there were more fire engines. But when there are more fire engines, there is more damage. Fire engines do not cause damage, but they respond to functional need: larger fires. If policies are effective, but not totally effective, they will be positively associated with problems.

18. The return to little house on the prairie Many of the proposals of Libertarians, like Murray, are an attempt to go back to the kind of social structure of the 19 th c. There was little government and lots of mutual aid (e.g. bucket brigades for fires.) But the San Francisco Earthquake and fire storm shows the dysfunctionality of relying on private fire companies and bucket brigades in a modern city.