1. Researching Media Audiences Lecture 3: Publics and Media Effects Research Sullivan (2013) see audiences in 4 ways: 1.Objects 2.Institutional constructions 3.Active users of media 4.Producers/subcultures

2. Background to Effects Research If we see an audience as an object, then that object has no real power (Sullivan, 2013) Mass audiences are faceless anonymous collections of millions of people (end 19C) Use of statistics to understand populations used by government and business (early 20C) New forms of mass media (radio, film) supports notions of mass audiences All media research looks for effects!

3. Hypodermic needle theory Brett Lamb http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qt5MjBlvGcY http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qt5MjBlvGcY Beauty and advertising http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JAW4LIFYFng http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JAW4LIFYFng The pron effect http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R8ptP3qFIxA http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R8ptP3qFIxA 12 yr old Vajazzling http://www.mirror.co.uk/news/uk-news/girls-having- bikini-waxes-vajazzling-1787328 http://www.mirror.co.uk/news/uk-news/girls-having- bikini-waxes-vajazzling-1787328

4. 4 Epochs of Effects Research (McQuail, 1984) 1.1900-30 Media is all-powerful (hypodermic needle) 2.1930-59 Opposition to all-powerful media model (the ‘no-effect’ model, limited effects) 3.1960-79 Powerful media revisited (long-term effects, media ownership, agenda setting) 4.1980’s+ Negotiated Media Meaning model 5.2005+ Social media models change everything

5. Alternate system: four models of effect (Perse, 2001) Direct effects – short tem, testable Conditional effects – based upon beliefs of the audience Cumulative effects – saturation & repetition leads to build up Cognitive-transactional effects – occurs due to individual responses to the priming effect of media

6. The problem with media violence Road Runner http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=odNLJNXnAb0 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=odNLJNXnAb0 If we see a lot of violence on TV then some of us will copy that violence in real life? Children are usually the focus of these studies- early studies counted the acts of violence in kids’ shows Problem here is cause and effect – no evidence that cartoons lead to long term kiddie criminals Contradicted by the evidence: TV violence is increasing Crime statistics are decreasing

7. Reality of violence in society Most domestic violence are men -> women Stranger rape much less common than acquaintances Murder is not the most common crime Black people more likely to be victims Older people more likely to be victims Domestic violence accounted for 25% of all violent crime, and 33% of all murders in USA These stats - not the portrayal of violence on TV and movies http://youtu.be/DHRwo48twyE Book of Eli http://youtu.be/DHRwo48twyE

8. Famous Media Case Studies http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbine_High_School_massacre Columbine shooting was blamed on violent video games. Media recants its theories and myths http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/nation/2009-04-13-columbine-myths_N.htm James Bulger murder blamed on violent video material, eg Childs Play. http://www.youtube.com/v=Vx1uUnr2aCMhttp://www.youtube.com/v=Vx1uUnr2aCM (response to causal links to video)

9. The evidence re media violence: Clear lack of evidence but supporters of the ‘negative effect’ thesis often make very firm statements about causality The only evidence is correlational links – X occurs at the same time as Y, therefore X caused Y, or Y caused X However… there is a lot of correlation: http://www.thepci.org/articles/The%20Role%20of%20Media%20Violence%20in%20Violent%20Behavior.pdf

10. Media accuracy and bias Journalists often reproduce bias surrounding various issues, forgetting to check sources Attitudes to beauty, obesity, alcohol, drugs, education, politics, boat people… are created and maintained by media Agenda-setting role leads to mass audience paranoia in some cases – HRT reports http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/181726.php http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/181726.php Media is subject to PR messages from big business http://www.universaldrugstore.com/news/tamiflu/is-tamiflu-better-than-relenza/ http://www.universaldrugstore.com/news/tamiflu/is-tamiflu-better-than-relenza/

11. Affect and Effect Nightingale & Ross argue that many people easily say that media violence is harmful Investigations of viewer responses Studies often focus on content, not on audience perceptions Strong statements about causality are therefore speculative All that can be said is that the media can cause effects in certain contexts

12. What about advertising? If the media did not cause consumers to go out and buy stuff, why is billions of dollars spent on advertising? Is behaving in a violent manner so different to buying clothes or food? Why do governments spend millions on health campaigns through the media?

13. Successful PR advertising Edward Bernays 1929 “torches of freedom” from 12% of market to 18% (1935), 33% (1965)

14. No.1 Successful online media campaign Barack Obama in 2007 was a one-term senator who nobody knew He used social media of YouTube (20mill hits) and Facebook (2.5mill fans) Used photos, social media friendly website, calls-to- action

15. Media effects on sexuality http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1070813/ http://www.lifesitenews.com/news/archive//ldn/2005/jul/05 070604 http://www.lifesitenews.com/news/archive//ldn/2005/jul/05 070604 Issue largely ignored by researchers: http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/116/Suppleme nt_1/303.full http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/116/Suppleme nt_1/303.full

16. How do we resist media effects? Realise that the media are not there to help us Understand that status, profit, and power are the bases of all democratic societies What we see is not always reality, but a reflection of what already exists in other media copy Try to not mimic American culture in all its forms Try to educate ourselves by seeing through the hype, the sensationalism, the falsehoods posing as facts Try to adopt an individual view on difficult issues, not just parrot the media position