1. There are two theory described about urban design and urban planning, those are the garden city movement and the city beautiful movement.
The City Beautiful Movement
In 1901 the AIA held a national conference on city beautification in Washington, D.C. The McMillan Commission was then formed to prepare a plan for the improvement of central Washington.
They toured Europe for inspiration and returned to propose a grand classical concept of landscape architecture with axes, mall, focal points, and pools–in effect reviving the original L’Enfant plan for the city. This, together with the example of the world’s fairs, initiated a country-wide program of civic improvement efforts: “the City Beautiful Era”. The City Beautiful Era was by no means limited to civic centers or fine public buildings. There was considerable activity in the creation of planned residential communities.
The Garden City Movement and a Scientific Approach
In his influential book Tomorrow: A Peaceful Path to Social Reform (1898), Ebenezer Howard, an English parliamentary stenographer, showed how workable and livable towns could be formed within the capitalist framework.
Permanent green space would separate the city and towns, serving as a horizontal fence of farmland. Rails and roads would link the towns, which would have their own industries, the nearby farms supplying fresh foods. All increases in land values would accrue to the town and its “stockholders,” the townspeople.
Howard’s proposal was accompanied by diagrams showing the attractions of the town, the country, and then of both, when ideally combined. The functional relations between the central city and its concept of a garden city and its internal lay out. Howard’s detailed thinking was not limited to physical design or to studies of optimum population sizes. He also made a precise financial analysis of what it would cost to build a garden city and now its operating costs would be met. Therein lay the strength of his proposal. He showed how it could be accomplished.
Howard’s analytical approach was an indication of the almost scientific study that modern city building requires. The city is so large and its operations so complex that is proper understanding can only be gained by the full application of precise analysis.

2. CITY BEAUTIFUL MOVEMENT
The City Beautiful Movement was a Progressive reform movement in North American architecture and urban planning that flourished in the 1890s and 1900s with the intent of using beautification and monumental grandeur in cities .
The movement, which was originally most closely associated with Chicago, Detroit, and Washington, D.C., did not seek beauty for its own sake, but rather as a social control device for creating moral and civic virtue among urban populations.
Advocates of the movement believed that such beautification could thus promote a harmonious social order that would increase the quality of life and help to remove social ills.
CONTENTS
1 HISTORY
1.1 Origins and impact
1.2 Architectural idioms
1.3 World Columbian Exposition
1.4 Louisiana Purchase Exposition
1.5 McMillan Plan
1.6 Influence in other cities
1.6.1 Denver
2 CITY BEAUTIFUL MOVEMENT IN AUSTRALIA
2.1 Canberra
2.2 Melbourne
2.3 City Beautiful Today
Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago

3. HISTORY
Origins and impact
The movement arose in large cities in the United States in response to the crowding in tenement districts, a consequence of high birth rates, increased immigration and consolidation of rural populations into cities. The movement flourished only for several decades, but in addition to the classicizing monuments it left, it also achieved great influence in urban planning that extended throughout the 20th century, in particular in regard to the later creation of housing projects in the United States. The "Garden City" movement in Britain influenced the contemporary planning of some newer suburbs of London, and there was cross-fertilization between the two esthetics, one based in formal garden plans and urbanization schemes of the Baroque the other, with its "semi-detached villas" evoking a more rural atmosphere.
Architectural idioms
The facade of MIT's Building 10 overlooking Killian Court by William Welles Bosworth
The particular architectural style of the movement borrowed heavily from the contemporary Beaux-Arts movement, which emphasized the necessity of order, dignity, and harmony. The movement also borrowed from classical monumental planning but differed from the true neoclassical style in that in the City Beautiful movement, the classical idiom was adopted only partially, mixed with Beaux-Arts elements, and subjugated as means to the end of creating uniformity and harmony in style.
MIT's Building
World Columbian Exposition
The first large-scale elaboration of the City Beautiful is considered to have been the "White City", as it came to be called, at the World Columbian Exposition of 1893 in Chicago. The planning of the exposition was headed by architect Daniel Burnham, who brought in architects from the eastern United States, as well as the sculptor Augustus Saint-Gaudens, to build large-scale Beaux-Arts monuments that were vaguely classical with uniform cornice height. The exposition displayed a model city of grand scale, with clean state-of-the-art transport systems and no visible poverty. The exposition is credited with leading to the wide-scale embrace of the monumental idiom in American architecture for the next 15 years. Richmond, Virginia's Monument Avenue is one expression of this initial movement.

4. louisiana purchase exposition
The momentum begun by the World Columbian Exposition was accelerated at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition in St. Louis. In 1901 the commissioner of architects selected Franco-American architect Emmanuel Louis Masqueray to be Chief of Design of the fair. In this position, which Masque ray held for three years, he designed the following fair buildings in the prevailing Beaux Arts mode: the Palace of Agriculture; the cascades and colonnades; the Palace of Forestry, Fish, and Game; the Palace of Horticulture; and the Palace of Transportation; all of which were widely emulated in civic projects across the United States. Masque ray resigned shortly after the fair opened in 1904, having been invited by Archbishop John Ireland of St. Paul to Minnesota to design a new cathedral for the city in the fair's Beaux Arts style. Other celebrated architects of the fair's buildings, notably Cass Gilbert, who designed the Saint Louis Art Museum, originally the fair's Palace of the Fine Arts, similarly employed City Beautiful ideas from the fair throughout their lives.
McMillan Plan
Axial plan of The Mall, Washington, D.C.: the Reflecting Pool and Lincoln Memorial extend the central axis
An early use of the City Beautiful ideal with intent of creating social order through beautification was the McMillan Plan, named for the Michigan Senator James McMillan, which arose from the Senate Park Commission's redesign of the monumental core of Washington, D.C. to commemorate the city's centennial and to fulfill unrealized aspects of the city plan of Pierre Charles L'Enfant a century earlier.
McMillan Plan
The Washington planners, who included Burnham, Saint-Gaudens, Charles McKim of McKim, Mead, and White, and Frederick Law Olmsted, Jr., visited many of the great cities of Europe with the intent of putting Washington on par with the European capitals of the era and creating a sense of the legitimacy of government in a time of social upheaval in the United States. The essence of the plan surrounded the United States Capitol with monumental government buildings to replace "notorious slum communities". At the heart of the design was the creation of the National Mall and eventually included Burnham's Union Station. The implementation of the plan was interrupted by World War I but resumed after the war, culminating in the construction of the Lincoln Memorial in 1922.

5. Influence in other cities
The movement's success in Washington is credited with influencing subsequent plans for beautification in many other cities, including Chicago, Cleveland, Columbus, Montreal, Denver, Madison (with the axis from the capitol building through State Street and to the University of Wisconsin campus), New York City (notably the Manhattan Municipal Building), Pittsburgh (the Schenley Farms district in the Oakland neighborhood of parks, museums, and universities), and San Francisco (manifested by its Civic Center). In Wilmington, Delaware, it inspired the creation of Rodney Square and the surrounding civic buildings. In New Haven, John Russell Pope drew up a plan for Yale University that swept away substandard housing, but banished the urban poor to the peripheries.
Denver
In Denver the energy behind extensive City Beautiful planning came from Mayor Robert W. Speer, whose plan centered round a Civic Center, disposed along a grand esplanade that led to the Colorado State Capitol. The plan was partly realized, on a reduced scale, with the Greek amphitheater, Voorhies Memorial and the Colonnade of Civic Benefactors, completed in 1919.
Capitol building in Denver
The Andrew Carnegie Foundation funded the Denver Public Library (1910), which was designed as a three-story Greek Revival temple with a colossal Ionic colonnade across it front; inside it featured open shelves, an art gallery and a children's room. Monuments capping vistas were an essential feature of City Beautiful urban planning: in Denver Paris-trained American sculptor Frederick MacMonnies was commissioned to design a monument marking the end of the Smoky Hill Trail. The bronze Indian guide he envisaged was vetoed by the committee and replaced with an equestrian Kit Carson.
Melbourne
The City Beautiful movement in Australia was a progressive step towards holistic planning. Melbourne’s grid plan was seen as dull and monotonous, and so the architect William Campbell designed a blueprint for the city. The main principal behind this were diagonal streets, providing site for new and comprehensive architecture and for special buildings. The designs of Paris and Washington were major inspirations in this blueprint.

6. CITY BEAUTIFUL MOVEMENT IN AUSTRALIA
Both European and North American cities were looked to for inspiration for the Australian City Beautiful movement. A combination of elements around 1900 also influenced the movement:
It was thought that Australia, being a county that was relatively newly settled by Europeans, had wasted an opportunity to comprehensively and aesthetically design cities from scratch.
Australian cities were seen as lacking beauty and civic pride.
The lack of architectural features and extensive street advertising were also concerns. This was attributed to “materialism, apathy, short-sightedness, political interference and indifference”.
Utopian city plans were another influence on the Australian City Beautiful movement. A better Brisbane, for example, was described by Louis Essen and illustrated by Lloyd Rees with a Parisian influence.
However, City Beautiful was not solely concerned with aesthetics. The term ‘beautility’ came out of the American city beautiful movement, which meant that the beautification of a city must also be functional. Beautility, including the proven economic value of improvements, went on to influence Australian town planning.
There were no formal city beautiful organizations that lead this movement in Australia, rather it was influenced through communications by professionals and bureaucrats, in particular architect-planners and local government reformers.
In the Federation era Australians were determined that their cities be seen as progressive and competitive. Adelaide was used as an Australian example of the “benefits of comprehensive civic design” with its ring of parklands. Beautification of the city of Hobart, for example, was seen as a way to increase the city’s popularity as a tourist destination.
Canberra
In his design for Canberra, Walter Burley Griffin incorporated City Beautiful principles.
Griffin was influenced by Washington “with grand axes and vistas and a strong central focal point”with specialised centres and, being a landscape architect, used the landscape to complement this layout
John Sulman, however, was Australia’s “leading proponent” in the City Beautiful movement and, in 1921, wrote the book An Introduction to Australian City Planning.
Both the City Beautiful and the Garden City movements were reflected in Sulman’s “geometric or contour controlled” designs of the circulatory road systems in Canberra. The widths of pavements were also reduced and vegetated areas were increased, such as planted road verges.
City Beautiful Today
World War I prolonged the City Beautiful movement in Australia, as more memorials were erected than in any other country. Although City Beautiful, or artistic planning, went on to become a part of comprehensive town planning, The Great Depression of the 1930s largely halted this movement.[3] Today, however, in Australia, many streets are tree-lined and streetscapes and skylines are regulated. This largely came about as a result of the city beautiful movement.

7. World Columbian Exposition by
Daniel Hudson Burnham
Daniel Burnham
Born
September (1846--)
Died
June (aged 65)
Occupation
Architect and Urban Planner
Daniel Hudson Burnham ( ) was an American architect and city planner whose maxim, "think big," dominated his successful career. The firm of Burnham & Root was important in developing the skyscraper
Daniel H. Burnham was born in Henderson, N.Y. In 1868 he worked for the architect William Le Baron Jenney in Chicago and then for Carter, Drake & Wight, where he met John Welborn Root. In 1873 the firm of Burnham & Root was established, and Burnham's career until 1891, the year of Root's death, was inseparable from that of his talented, innovative partner
The firm, which employed as many as 60 draftsmen, moved into the just-completed Montauk Block ( ) in Chicago, which they had designed.
Although load-bearing masonry walls were outdated by 1889, Burnham & Root designed the 16-story Monadnock Building in Chicago (completed in 1891) of brick construction. The walls enclosed a portal-braced iron frame consisting of girders riveted to the columns for wind bracing and structural stability; this was the first example of portal bracing. Burnham & Root's further development of this structural innovation was the completely steel structure of the Rand McNally Building ( ) in Chicago. Their four-story Reliance Building (1890; increased to 13 stories in 1895), also in Chicago, with terracotta facing material, gave expression to the steel-and-glass skyscrapers of the 1890s
Burnham and Root were to have been the coordinators of the World's Columbian Exposition to be held in 1893 in Chicago, but on the day of the first planning conference Root contracted pneumonia, and died. Charles Follen McKim of the noted architectural firm of McKim, Mead & White filled the void left by Root and influenced Burnham in his "think big" attitude. Numerous architectural firms from Chicago, New York, Boston, and Kansas City designed specific buildings, and Frederick Law Olmsted was the landscape architect. The classical style provided the unifying element in the architecture of the exposition.

8. Burnham's firm designed over 100 major projects:
In 1891 Burnham established the firm of D. H. Burnham, which was replaced in 1896 by D. H. Burnham & Co. In 1894 he became president of the American Institute of Architects.
After the Chicago exposition of 1893 Burnham devoted his efforts to the "City Beautiful" movement of civic planning. "Make no little plans," he said, "for they have no magic to stir men's blood … Make big plans, aim high…. " His city planning aimed at creating beauty in a geometry of streets, with large parks and recreational areas and boulevards leading from a civic center to other nodal points of the city.
In 1903 Burnham replanned Manila in the Philippines in this manner, ridding the city of its chaos and yet retaining its picturesque image. Baguio, 160 miles away, was planned as a summer retreat in the hills, with a dominant geometry adapted to the contours.
Three days before the great earthquake of April 15, 1906, Burnham submitted his plan for San Francisco. Never implemented, it attempted to circumnavigate the hills and tie the whole street pattern together by an outer ring road.
Chicago was preplanned, and Burnham's ideas for a coordinated system of surface and subsurface freight distribution, linked to the waterfront activities, were partially realized. Washington, D.C., was "beatified" and railroads were removed from the Mall; Burnham built Union Station there.
Burnham's firm designed over 100 major projects:
civic centers, office blocks,
department stores,
libraries, and
numerous stations for the Penn Central Railroad.
The station in Pittsburgh has been described as "Burnham baroque," and one critic sees the beginnings of Art Nouveau in its flowing lines

9. Burnham's Plan for central Chicago
World's Columbian Exposition
Court of Honor and Grand Basin - World's Columbian Exposition
Burnham and Root had accepted responsibility to oversee construction of the World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago’s then-desolate Jackson Park on the south lakefront. The largest world's fair to that date (1892), it celebrated the 400-year anniversary of Christopher Columbus' famous voyage.
After Root's death, a team of distinguished American architects and landscape architects, including Burnham, Frederick Law Olmsted, Charles McKim and Louis Sullivan, radically changed Root's modern and colorful style to a Classical Revival style. Under Burnham's direction, the construction of the Fair overcame huge financial and logistical hurdles, including a worldwide financial panic and an extremely tight timeframe, to open on time.
Considered the first example of a comprehensive planning document in the nation, the fairground was complete with grand boulevards, classical building facades, and lush gardens. Often called the "White City", it popularized neoclassical architecture in a monumental and rational Beaux-Arts plan. The remaining population of architects in the U.S. was soon asked by clients to incorporate similar elements into their designs.
City Planning & the Plan of Chicago
Beginning in 1906 and published in 1909, Burnham and assistant Edward H. Bennett prepared The Plan of Chicago, which laid out plans for the future of the city. It was the first comprehensive plan for the controlled growth of an American city; an outgrowth of the City Beautiful movement. The plan included ambitious proposals for the lakefront and river and declared that every citizen should be within walking distance of a park. Sponsored by the Commercial Club of Chicago
Burnham's Plan for central Chicago
Burnham donated his services in hopes of furthering his own cause.
Plans
Daniel Burnham. Chicago Landmarks. Retrieved on September 21, 2004.
Daniel Hudson Burnham. Chicago Stories. Retrieved on September 24, 2004.
Jameson, D. Daniel Hudson Burnham. Artists Represented. Retrieved on December 14, 2005.
Today In History: September 4. American Memory. The Library of Congress. Retrieved on September 24, 2004.

10. ‘La Ville Radieuse’ by Le Corbusier
‘The Contemporary City for Three Million Inhabitants’ proposed by Le Corbusier for central Paris is a myth in the history of contemporary town planning. The proposal, according to Le Corbusier, could increase the urban capacity and at the same time improve the urban environment and the efficiency of the city. The thoughts and design principles embedded in the proposal of La Ville Radieuse quickly became models for architects of the post-war period. Le Corbusier was ambitious for the proposal and he even suggested demolishing the whole part of central
1.1 La Ville Radieuse
La Ville Radieuse, which is known as ‘The Contemporary City of Three Million Inhabitants’ was designed by Le Corbusier for central Paris and was first shown in November 1922 at Salon d’Automne, Paris.
It was designed to accommodate as many as six times the population of central Paris at that time. According to Le Corbusier, the design of La Ville Radieuse represents an indisputable ideal of personal freedom.
a rendering of La Ville Radieuse.
He believed that many cities in the early twentieth century were chaotic and inefficient; he therefore came up with the proposal of La Ville Radieuse which had the following objectives: PLEA The 23rd Conference on Passive and Low Energy Architecture, Geneva, Switzerland, 6-8 September 2006
Provide effective means of communications
Provide large amount of green area
Provide better access to the sun
Reduce urban traffic
He eventually realized that building high is the ultimate means to fulfill these aims and at the same time, accommodate the growing urban population.

11. As can be seen from Figure 1, the layout of La Ville Radieuse is almost symmetrical ad the centre, which is the core of all types of public transport. The central terminus is an access point to the subway at the lower deck of the underground system and trains at the upper deck of the underground system. The ground level is open to air-buses and air-taxis.
The central part of the site is reserved for twenty-four skyscrapers, which are also the most controversial elements in the whole design.
These cruciform skyscrapers are mainly for business and hotel purposes. Each skyscraper with dimensions about 190m x 190m and a height over 200m were designed to house five to eight hundred thousands people.
According to Le Corbusier, this area would become the civic centre and headquarters of all the leading firms. Figure 2 shows a rendering of a skyscraper.
Figure 2: 3D rendering of skyscraper.
Surrounding those skyscrapers are residential districts which provide accommodation for people who work in the skyscrapers.
These housing blocks were known as apartment-villas. Inside these housing blocks, each duplex apartment has its own hanging garden and according to Le Corbusier, each apartment is a house on its own.
The built-up area only accounts for 15% of the total site area of La Ville Radieuse, as so, the formation of concrete canyons could be avoided and inhabitants would be able to enjoy the large amount of gardens and open green spaces provided. Moreover, the apartments would have full daylight access and the urban noise problem would be reduced to the minimum.
In La Ville Radieuse, the business district, the residential district, the transportation core and the high street shopping area are organized in a Cartesian way where all elements as a whole function like a ‘living machine’. In light of the advancement of construction technology, Le Corbusier believed that millions of residents could benefit from the advantages of this rational planning.
Although the proposal of La Ville Radieuse was first proposed for central Paris, Le Corbusier also proposed to adapt it to other places such as Algiers in Algeria, Barcelona in Spain, Buenos Aires in Argentina and Sao Paulo in Brazil.
Nevertheless, the lack of financial support from the business sector has left the scheme as drawings on papers and it has never been realized

12. CITY BEAUTIFUL MOVEMENT IN AMERICA
The 1890s and early years of the twentieth century were a turning point in American society. The economic system struggled to define itself and Americans through the language of consumption; social unrest and violence, results of economic depressions, disgust with corruption in government, and overcrowded urban centers erupted periodically throughout the era; and the agrarian way of life, so familiar and fundamental to American thought and self-image, was passing away into a nostalgic past. Historian Harold Faulkner observes that Americans witnessed the passing of the frontier and the rise of the United States to a position of world power and responsibility which was to make any return to her old isolation increasingly difficult, if not impossible. Old issues were dead or dying; sectional tension was no longer a force of much importance in politics, and efforts to revive it proved unavailing. Most important of all, the triumph of industry over agriculture was now assured. The Industrial Revolution, if not completed, had gone so far as to make turning back to the ways of a simpler agrarian society out of the question.
Life had come to be lived, for many, in the city. Not only had population increased during the period 1860 to 1910 from 31.4 million to 91.9 million, but the percentage of Americans living in cities increased as well--by 1910, 46% lived in cities with populations of over 2,500. (Hines, 81) With population centering on urban areas, the questions of the city--the "good life," crime, poverty, urban blight, and civic idealism--all came to the fore near the turn of the century.
Many "believed in the classic definition of the city as the means to the 'good life,' a life in which man could aspire to more than mere physical survival..." (Blanton, 15) The attractions of the city were many--restaurants, theater, music and dancing, shopping. However, the real consumers of the city's goods were not its residents; increasingly, with the advent of improved transportation and roadways, the middle and upper-middle class retreated from the cities into the suburbs, leaving the less well-to-do and the downright poverty-stricken to the quickly decaying urban center. The upper classes traveled into the city to attend to their business, consume the leisure activities contained therein, and the return to their comfortable and beautiful suburban homes. What they left behind in the cities is the subject of numerous Progressive reform movements throughout the period.
Jacob Riis, as early as 1890, observed (of New York City) that "three-fourths of its people live in the tenements, and the nineteenth-century drift of the population to the cities is sending ever-increasing multitudes to crowd them...We know now that there is no way out; that the 'system' that was the evil offspring of public neglect and private greed has come to stay, a storm-centre forever of our civilization." (Riis) As an early social reformer, Riis' concern with the city was echoed by future reformers.
Yet while his activism seemed to stem from genuine concern-- "The remedy that shall be an effective answer to the coming appeal for justice must proceed from the public conscience." -- the reformers who followed Riis were concerned less with the poor of the cities than with their own fear of these growing urban masses. Their concern can be understood in the context of the social upheaval centered on the city during the Gilded Age, beginning with Chicago's Haymarket Riot of 1886 and followed by labor unrest just prior and just after the beginning of the 1893 depression--the Homestead strike of 1892 and the Pullman strike of The depression starting in 1893 lasted until 1897, its pain, division, and violence a memory fresh in the minds of Americans

13. The reformers of urban America were generally middle and upper-middle class, whose concern was with the potential violence of those left in the cities. Paul Boyer explains,
The process of urbanization functioned as a potent catalyst for social speculation and social action...social thinkers, reformers, philanthropists, and others whose assumption and activities seemed otherwise very different were often linked by a shared preoccupation with the city and, more specifically, by a common interest in controlling the behavior of an increasingly urbanized populace.
The lower classes these activists were attempting to "help" (and control) were living in squalid and significantly unhealthy conditions. An excellent example of these conditions are the alleys and tenements of Washington D.C. The type of squalor found in these "homes" was understandably unacceptable in the nation's capital--these alleys were hidden away.
A square block of fine townhouses and mansions enclosed a courtyard of buildings accessible by a small alley from the street--where poverty, crime, illegitimacy, and TB swarmed over its inhabitants, unknown to the upper-class homeowners who resolved to live in the urban center. In 1897, 303 of these alleys housed 18,978 people
The conditions found in the city center of Washington D.C. was not unique; the squalor and hopelessness of city life for immigrants and the poor throughout the country has been recounted numerous times by writers such as Theodore Dreiser, Stephen Crane, Riis, and Frank Norris.
The middle and upper-class reformers who sought to remedy this situation did so, for the most part, out of their own fear.
They knew that for their own safety and business viability something had to be done; but how to attack the problem? They had to make the assumption that the poverty-stricken were somehow morally, and by extension civically deficient, a point of view quite in vogue at the time, with the continuing popularity of Darwin's theories of survival of the fittest and Spenser's translation of these ideas into the social realm. "Common to almost all the reformers...was the conviction--explicit or implicit--that the city, although obviously different from the village...should nevertheless replicate the moral order of the village.
City dwellers, they believed, must somehow be brought to perceive themselves as members of cohesive communities knit together by shared moral and social values." (Boyer, vii)
The most visible expression of this belief in the creation of moral and civic virtue in the urban population was created by the reformers of the City Beautiful movement.
The movement was conceived as explicitly reform-minded; Daniel Burnham, a leading proponent of the movement, linked their efforts with Progressivism.

14. A reform "of the landscape, he suggested, [would] complement the burgeoning reforms in other areas of society." (Hines, 95) While other reformers concentrated on improving sanitary conditions or opening missions like Jane Addams' Hull House in Chicago, the City Beautiful leaders (upper-middle class, white, male), believed the emphasis should be on creating a beautiful city, which would in turn inspire its inhabitants to moral and civic virtue.
"The reform movement in America, which had largely been concerned with corruption in local government, exploitation of the laboring classes by big business, improvement in housing conditions in large cities, and other social causes, quickly embraced the concept of the city beautiful as an American goal."
Generally stated, the City Beautiful advocates sought to improve their city through beautification, which would have a number of effects:
social ills would be swept away, as the beauty of the city would inspire civic loyalty and moral rectitude in the impoverished;
2) American cities would be brought to cultural parity with their European competitors through the use of the European Beaux-Arts idiom; and 3) a more inviting city center still would not bring the upper classes back to live, but certainly to work and spend money in the urban areas.
The premise of the movement was the idea that beauty could be an effective social control device. "When they trumpeted the meliorative power of beauty, they were stating their belief in its capacity to shape human thought and behavior." (Wilson, 80) Based on their fear, and a sincere sense of responsibility to improve the lives of the inner city poor,
the City Beautiful reformers believed that "'civic loyalty' itself--that elusive abstraction which rolled so easily from Progressive tongues--[could] provide the foundation stone" for a harmonious urban moral order. (Boyer, 252) Edward A. Ross' contemporary work Social Control advocated that "emotions once channeled toward the supernatural be redirected to the civic ideal..." (Boyer, 253) but did not posit a method of inculcating the masses in this ideal. Boyer's point that civic loyalty, if it is to be an effective instrument of social control, must become compellingly real, is the idea which the City Beautiful leaders themselves made real.
Important as beauty was for itself, its role in environmental conditioning was never far from the minds of civic center advocates.
The civic center's beauty would reflect the souls of the city's inhabitants, inducing order, calm, and propriety therein. Second, the citizen's presence in the center, together with other citizens, would strengthen pride in the city and awaken a sense of community with fellow urban dwellers. (Wilson, 92) z

15. The idiom the City Beautiful leaders used in their ideal civic centers was the Beaux-Arts style, named for the famous Ecole des Beaux-Arts in Paris, which instructed artists and architects in the necessity of order, dignity, and harmony in their work. The first expression of this monumental style in the United States was found at the World's Columbian Exposition of 1893.
The shimmering "White City," as the fair came to be known during that summer in Chicago, was a tour de force of early city planning and architectural cohesion. In the grand Court of Honor, architects, brought in from the East by Director of Construction Daniel H. Burnham of Chicago, put their Beaux-Arts training to use in the monumental and vaguely classical buildings, all of uniform cornice height, all decorated roughly the same, and all painted bright white.
The beauty of the main court, the well-planned balance of buildings, water, and open green spaces was a revelation for the 27 million visitors. Not only was the White City dignified and monumental, it was also well-run: there was no poverty and no crime (so the visitors were led to believe), there were state-of-the-art sanitation and transportation systems, and the Columbian Guard kept everyone happily in their place. In contrast to the grey urban sprawl and blight of Chicago and other American cities, this seemed a utopia.
The fair set American taste in architecture for at least the next 15 years, although some argue that its influence extends even farther into the twentieth century. Chicago architect Louis Sullivan, who designed the Transportation Building at the fair (not included in the Court of Honor), complained that the reliance on European forms and the monumental idiom set native American architecture back decades.
The Beaux-Arts style was nonetheless considered dignified and beautiful, and Americans embraced the order the style provided during a period of great disharmony and disorder in their country. The fair also introduced the concept of a monumental core or civic center, an arrangement of buildings intended to inspire in their beauty and harmony, as well as the beginnings of comprehensive city planning--although in many cases the city planning was directly only at the monumental core and public parks, rather than addressing zoning issues or affordable housing.
The first organized expression of the City Beautiful movement as a means of beautification and social control was, as we will see in the next section, the 1901 Plan for Washington D.C., designed by Daniel Burnham, former Director of Construction for the fair, and his Senate Parks Commission.