1. PPL Syntax & Formal Semantics Lecture Notes: Chapter 2

3. Midterm 2007 (let ((x 4) (y 5)) ( + x y (let ((x y) (y x) (+ -)) (+ x y)))) מה הערך של הביטוי ?

4. Today Concrete and Abstract Syntax Operational Semantics: applicative order and normal order

5. Syntax Concrete Abstract

6. Concrete Syntax Defines the actual syntax In Scheme: – Small and simple – Context free grammar We use BNF notation – Formal way to describe formal languages – Next slide…

7. Concrete Syntax Non-terminals are denoted as Terminals (tokens) are surrounded with ’’ Optional items are denoted as […] Items repeating 0 or more times end with * Items repeating 1 or more times end with + Alternative choices are separated by the | symbol Grouped items are in parentheses

8. Concrete Syntax -> | ’(’ ’)’ -> | | -> | -> Numbers -> ’#t’ | ’#f’ -> valid variable name -> | | | … -> + -> ’define’ -> ’lambda’ ’(’ * ’)’ + … See full syntax in lecture notes! No, really. See lecture notes.

9. -> ( ) -> ( if )-> ( if #f ) -> ( if #f number) -> ( if #f 2) -> ( if #f ( ) 2) -> ( if #f ( / ) 2) -> ( if #f ( / 1 ) 2) -> ( if #f ( / 1 0 ) 2) Partial syntax: -> | ’(’ ’)’ -> | | -> | -> Numbers -> ’#t’ | ’#f’ -> valid variable name -> | | … -> + -> ’if’

10. Abstract Syntax Emphasizes the components Ignores syntactic parts irrelevant to semantics (like order of components, for example) Kinds – Kind of category Components – Elements that compose a component

11. Abstract Syntax : Kinds:, : Kinds:, : Kinds:,, … : Components: Variable: Expression: See notes for full syntax

12. Abstract Syntax Feature Diagram Can be represented by an Abstract-Syntax- Feature-Diagram (AS-FD) – Actually an and/or tree: kinds are or-branch and components are and-branch

13. Build AS-FD from Concrete Syntax -> | ‘(‘ ‘)’

14. : Kinds:, : Kinds:,, : Components: Variable: Expression:

15. Abstract Syntax Parser (ASP) and Abstract Syntax Tree (AST) ASP is a piece of software used by compilers and interpreters that defines an interface to the syntax For an expression e, AST(e) is a tree representing e. The AS-FD defines the AST representation of expressions The ASP builts AST(e) for us.

16. Possible ASP Tree for the expression: (lambda (x y) (+ x y))

17. Recall Java… class MyClass { public int doSomething(int in) { System.out.println(in); }... MyClass myInstance = new MyClass(); myInstance.doSomething(1+5);

18. Operational Semantics Defined as a set of evaluation rules Actually an eval(exp) algorithm for Scheme expressions In order to formally define eval(exp) we recall some concepts and introduce new ones

19. Formalism: Definitions Binding instance (or declaration): a variable occurrence to which other occurrences refer. In Scheme: 1.Variables occurring as lambda parameters are binding instances (also let!) 2.Top level (non-nested) defined variables (in a define form) are binding instances (declarations). No internal “defines” are allowed!

20. Scope Scope of a binding instance is the region of the program text in which variable occurrences refer to the value that is bound by the variable declaration (where the variable declaration is recognized) In Scheme: 1.Scope of lambda parameters is the entire lambda expression (or let body) 2.Scope of define variables is the entire program, from the define expression and on: Universal / global scope

21. Bound Occurrence Occurrence of variable x that is not a binding instance and is contained within the scope of a binding instance x. The binding instance (declaration) that binds an occurrence of x is the most nested declaration of x that includes the x occurrence in its scope.

22. Free Occurrence Free occurrence: An occurrence of variable x that is not a binding instance, and is not bound.

23. Examples (lambda (x) (+ x 5)) ;x is bound by its declaration in the parameter list. (define y 3) ;A binding y instance. (+ x y) ;x is free, y is bound (considering the above evaluations). (+ x ( (lambda (x) (+ x 3)) 4)) ;the 1st x occurrence is free, ;the 2nd is a binding instance, ;the 3rd is bound by the declaration in the lambda parameters. (lambda (y) ;a binding instance (+ x y ;the x occurrence is free ;the y occurrence is bound by the outer declaration ((lambda (x y) (+ x y)) ;the x and y occurrences are bound by the internal declarations. 3 4) ))

24. Renaming Bound variables can be renamed without changing the semantics (kind like renaming in Java Eclipse) (lambda (x) x) (lambda (y) y) Bad renaming: ((+ x ( (lambda (x) (+ x y)) 4))) ((+ x ( (lambda (y) (+ y y)) 4)))

25. Substitution New definition!

26. Composition of Substitution

27. Application of Substitution

28. No renaming; no replacement 10◦{x = 5} = 10 No renaming; just replacement (+ x y)◦{x = 5} = (+ 5 y) Renaming and replacement ((+ x ((λ (x) (+ x 3)) 4)))◦{x = 5} = ((+ 5 ((λ (x1) (+ x1 3)) 4))) Another renaming and replacement (λ (y) (((λ (x) x) y) x))◦{x = } (rename ) => (λ (y 2 ) (((λ (x 3 ) x 3 ) y 2 ) x))◦{x = } (replace ) => (λ (y 2 ) (((λ (x 3 ) x 3 ) y 2 ) ))

29. Reduce Get the body part of a closure. x

30. The Substitution Model: Applicative Order Evaluation Now we have all the definitions we need to define eval(e).

31. 31 Applicative order evaluation rules Combination... ( …… ) 1.Evaluate to get the procedure 2.Evaluate to get the arguments 3.If is primitive: do whatever magic it does 4.If is user-define (e.i. lambda): 1.Substitute 2.Reduce Eager!

32. Before We See the Pseudo-code… Predicates atom?, composite?, number?, boolean? and variable? Are used to classify expressions. Predicates primitive-procedure? And procedure? are used to classify procedures. Predicate value? Identifies Scheme values.

34. Another Approach: Normal Order Evaluation Also called ‘lazy’ Main idea: argument evaluation is deferred until needed: – Branch – Primitive procedure

35. 35 Normal order evaluation Combination … ( …… ) Evaluate to get the procedure evaluate to get the arguments If is primitive: do whatever it does If is compound: evaluate body with formal parameters replaced by arguments Lazy…

37. 37 The Difference Applicative ((lambda (x) (+ x x)) (* 3 4)) (+ 12 12) 24 Normal ((lambda (x) (+ x x)) (* 3 4)) (+ (* 3 4) (* 3 4)) (+ 12 12) 24 This may matter in some cases: ((lambda (x y) (+ x 2)) 3 (/ 1 0)) Your interpreter works in Applicative Order!

38. Another Example (define f (lambda (x) (f x))) (define g (lambda (x) 5)) (g (f 0)) What will happen with applicative evaluation? What about Normal?

39. LET Revisited (define f (λ (x y) (let ((f-helper (lambda (a b) (+ (* x (* a a)) (* y b) (* a b))) ) ) (f-helper (+ 1 (* x y)) (- 1 y)))))

40. LET and Recursive Procedures (define fact (λ (n) (let ((iter (lambda (prod c) (if (> c n) prod (iter (* c prod) (+ c 1)))) )) (iter 1 1))))

41. (define fact (λ (n) (let ((iter (λ (prod c) (if (> c n) prod (iter (* c prod) (+ c 1)))))) (iter 1 1)))) (define fact (λ (n) ( (λ (iter) (iter 1 1)) (λ (prod c) (if (> c n) prod (iter (* c prod) (+ c 1)))))))

42. LET and Recursive Procedures (define fact (λ (n 1 ) (let ((iter 2 (lambda (prod 3 c 3 ) (if (> c 3 n 1 ) prod 3 (iter (* c 3 prod 3 ) (+ c 3 1)))) )) (iter 2 1 1))))

43. LETREC “For local recursive functions there is a special operator letrec, similar to let, and used only for local procedure (function) definitions. It’s syntax is the same as that of let. But, the scope of the local procedure declarations includes all of the initialization procedures!”

44. LETREC (define fact (λ (n) (letrec ((iter (lambda (prod c) (if (> c n) prod (iter (* c prod) (+ c 1)))) )) (iter 1 1))))

45. Usage Agreement let : non-procedure locals letrec : procedural locals The substitution model does not account for local recursive procedures

46. Haskell Curry

47. Currying ;Type: [Number*Number -> Number] (define add (λ (x y) (+ x y))) ;Type: [Number -> [Number -> Number]] (define c-add (λ (x) (λ (y) (add x y)))) (define add3 (c-add 3)) (add3 4) 7

48. Why Currying? (define add-fib (lambda (x y) (+ (fib x) y))) (define c-add-fib (lambda (x) (lambda (y) (+ (fib x) y)))) (define c-add-fib (lambda (x) (let ((fib-x (fib x))) (lambda (y) (+ fib-x y)))))