1. Topic 1 different attributes that characterize sensors ETEC 6405

2. Sensors and transducers Analogue signal– this is a continuous signal. Sensors measure physical phenomenon. Some physical processes are – Angular or linear position Acceleration Temperature Pressure Stress Light intensity Sound

3. Properties by which we characterize sensors -Accuracy: maximum difference between the indicated and the actual reading. Maximum error or accuracy Problem A sensor with an accuracy of 10 mm has a position reading of 1.34 meters. What is the maximum and minimum possible readings for this sensor based on the sensors accuracy?

4. Resolution Resolution: used in systems that step through readings. The smallest increment the sensor can detect. length resolution Measurements from A sensor span a distance of 3 meters in 50 increments. What is the resolution?

5. Repeatability: When a sensor measurement is repeated and there are errors associated with the measurement, we can use a standard deviation to describe repeatability. Linearity: A linear relationship between the input phenomena of the device relative to the output to another device Precision: Considers accuracy, repeatability of the device relative to another device Range: Natural limits of a sensor. Dynamic Response: frequency range for a sensor, i.e. from 1KHz to 10KHz. Calibration: this is the relationship between the input phenomena and the sensor output. Cost: sensor pricing, generally more precision equals more cost. Environment: Factors which affect the sensor performance i.e. humidity, temp, etc

6. Angular Displacement Potentiometers The wiper moves across the resistive film, changing the resistance between V1 and V2 Potentiometers are used as voltage dividers

7. Encoder disk There are two types of encoder disks, relative encoders and absolute encoders

9. Tacogenerator If ω is the angular velocity of the shaft, the output voltage of the tachometer is given by where k is the gain constant of the tachometer.

10. Variable reluctance tachometer When the magnetic moves past a stationary pick-up coil, current is induced. For each rotation of the shaft there is a pulse in the coil. This technique often requires some signal conditioning circuitry

11. Strain gauges Strain gauges measure stress-strain in a material by measuring the resistance in a small piece of wire

12. The resistance of a wire is a function of the length, width and thickness. When the wire is stretched, these parameters will change. We relate the change in resistance to strain/stress

13. Wheatstone bridge

14. Temperature sensors Thermistors are used in low- to medium- temperature applications, ranging from −50 ◦C to about +200 ◦C. RTDs are used in medium-range temperature measurements, ranging from −200 ◦C to+600 ◦C. thermocouples are best suited to very low and very high temperature measurements. The typical measuring range is from −270 ◦C to +2600 ◦C. Integrated circuit temperature sensors are used in low-temperature applications, ranging from −40 ◦C to +125 ◦C.

15. The LM35DZ, manufactured by National Semiconductors Inc. This is a 3-pin analogue output sensor which provides a linear output voltage of 10 mV/◦C. The temperature range is 0 ◦C to +100 ◦C, with an accuracy of +/-1.5 ◦C.

16. Thermister Thermistors are non-linear devices, their resistance will decrease with an increase in temperature. They are constructed from metal oxide semiconductors

17. Thermister instrumentation circuit

18. Thermocouple Thermocouples use a junction of dissimilar metals to generate a voltage proportional to temperature The basic calculations for thermocouples provides the measured voltage using a reference temperature and a constant specific to the device

19. Equation characterizing a thermocouple

20. Thermocouple classes

21. An instrumentation rig Often the signal from the transducer needs to be modified by a signal conditioner before it enters the control system

22. Signal conditioning Signals from transducers are typically too small to be read by a normal analogue input card or a MCU We often use signal conditioning to obtain a signal of suitable size and format for the Analogue to digital process Signal conditioners often contain amplifier circuits. There are many many different amplification circuits that use operational amplifiers. Instrumentation amplifier circuits often have some capacity to change the gain and offset. What is important is that you know what the common ones are, how they are used and how to derive the gain for the amplifier circuit

23. Definitions

24. Offset The offset in an amplifier circuit is obtained by changing the value of a resistor. This adds a linear value to the output of the amplifier

25. Inverting amplifier

26. Non inverting amplifier

27. Voltage follower

28. Summing amplifier The summing amplifier produces an inverted output

29. Single ended signal amplifier Inverting amplifier with adjustable gain and offset

30. Differential voltage amplifier

31. Alternative differential amplifier Differential amplifier with current converted to voltage input

32. The circuit below will convert a differential (double ended) signal to a single ended signal. The two input op-amps are used as unity gain followers, to create a high input impedance. The following amplifier amplifies the voltage difference

33. Comparator A comparator is constructed using an operational amplifier. The comparators output is Bistable (Vs+ or Vs-). The output indicates which of the two inputs has a higher voltage.