1. EXTROVERTSpace Propulsion 03 1 Basic Orbits and Mission Analysis

2. EXTROVERTSpace Propulsion 03 Newton's Law of Gravitation To find the velocity increment required for various missions, we must calculate trajectories and orbits. This is done using Newton's Law of Gravitation: Here the lhs is the "radial force" of attraction due to gravitation, between two bodies; the big one of mass M, and the little one of mass m. The universal gravitational constant G is 6.670 E-11 Nm 2 /kg 2.

3. EXTROVERTSpace Propulsion 03 Keplerian Orbits Johannes Kepler (1609: first law, 1619: third law) Kepler’s First Law: The orbit of each planet is an ellipse, with the sun at one focus. Second Law: The line joining the planet to the sun sweeps out equal areas in equal times. Third Law: The square of the period of a planet is proportional to the cube of its mean distance from the sun

4. EXTROVERTSpace Propulsion 03 Kepler's Laws applied to satellite of mass m, orbiting a much bigger object of mass M. i.e, m << M): 1. The satellite travels in an elliptical path around its center of attraction, which is located at one of focii of the ellipse. The orbit must lie in a plane containing the center of attraction. phy-061062.blogspot.com/

5. EXTROVERTSpace Propulsion 03 Implication: The radius vector from the center of attraction sweeps equal areas of the orbit per unit time. As the satellite moves away, its speed decreases. As it nears the center of attraction, its speed increases. Second Law: The line joining the planet to the sun sweeps out equal areas in equal times. Found on the web at a secondary site. Primary developer of this application is unknown

6. EXTROVERTSpace Propulsion 03 Third Law: The square of the period of a planet is proportional to the cube of its mean distance from the sun Implication: The ratio of the squares of the orbital periods of any two satellites about the same body equals the ratio of the cubes of the semi-major axes of the respective orbits.

7. EXTROVERTSpace Propulsion 03 Satellite Equations of Motion Newton’s Second Law Law of Gravitation F=magnitude of force due to gravity (N) G=Universal constant of gravity = M=mass of Earth (kg) M =satellite mass R =distance from center of Earth to the satellite (km) = GM for Earth = 398,600.5 Equation for satellite acceleration (from the above two Newton laws) (2-body equation of motion) The solution to this is the polar equation of a conic section.

8. EXTROVERTSpace Propulsion 03 Source: http://www.bartleby.com/61/imagepages/A4conics.htmlhttp://www.bartleby.com/61/imagepages/A4conics.html Courtesy Houghton-Miflin Co. ConicEnergySemi-major axis a e Circle<0= radius0 Ellipse<0>00<e<1 Parabola01 Hyperbola>0<0>1 Total specific mechanical Energy of an orbit: (mechanical energy per unit mass) Why Conic Sections are called conic sections: Conic Section Orbits / Trajectories where a is the semi major axis and V is magnitude of velocity.

9. EXTROVERTSpace Propulsion 03 A Few Commonly-Used Results on Orbits Circular orbit around Earth: r in km is radius of orbit V in km/s; r in km Escape Velocity from Earth: Speed at any point in an elliptical orbit: Time for one orbit is: Specific angular momentum: is constant for the 2-body problem, per Kepler (no plane change)

10. EXTROVERTSpace Propulsion 03 Orbit Maneuvers where V is the velocity at that point in the corresponding orbit. The assumption made usually in simplifying orbit maneuvers is that we are dealing with a 2-body problem. For transfers between earth orbit and say, Mars orbit, we assume initially an Earth-vehicle problem. When the vehicle leaves the vicinity of Earth, we assume a Sun-vehicle problem, and finally a Mars-vehicle problem Hohmann transfer orbit: Transfer orbit’s ellipse is tangent to initial and final orbits, at the transfer orbit’s pengee and apogee respectively  Most efficient transfer between two circular orbits. Two-burn transfer between circular orbits at altitudes : rArA rBrB VBVB VAVA

11. EXTROVERTSpace Propulsion 03 Hohmann Transfer Example:  V for a two-burn transfer between circular orbits at altitudes. For Earth, with delta-v in km/s, When the radii of the two orbits are close, the delta-v’s are approximately equal.

12. EXTROVERTSpace Propulsion 03 One-Tangent Burn This is a quicker orbit transfer than the Hohman transfer ellipse, but is more costly in delta-v. VAVA VBVB

13. EXTROVERTSpace Propulsion 03 Orbit Plane Changes Simple plane change through angle  at an orbital velocity of V i. Plane changes are often combined with orbit-change burns. Usual practice is to do a little of the plane change at the initial burn (at the lower orbit where velocity is higher) and most of the plane change at the final burn at the higher altitude where the velocity is lower. Plane change combined with Hohman transfer.

14. EXTROVERTSpace Propulsion 03 Launch from Earth Note that the objective is to achieve the required tangential velocity for orbit – the need to gain height above Earth is mainly dictated by the need to get out of the atmosphere and minimize drag losses. As the vehicle trajectory begins to slant over, gravity pulls the trajectory down. At low speeds, this requires a substantial pitch angle between the instantaneous velocity vector and the thrust direction to counter gravity. Gravity Turn 1. Begin ascent with short vertical rise, during which it starts usually and completes a roll from launch-pad azimuth to desired flight azimuth. 2. Pitch-over (pitch because angular change of axis occurs faster than change of velocity vector from vertical) 3. Adjust altitude to keep in trajectory through aerodynamic load region.

15. EXTROVERTSpace Propulsion 03 Gravity turn If the angle of the trajectory with respect to the local horizontal is gamma (  ) then, this angle changes as Local horizontal V(t) V(t+dt)  dd g l dt g l Cos  dt (rad.)or (rad/s)

16. EXTROVERTSpace Propulsion 03 Controlled Angle of Attack – Linear Tangent Steering Angle of attack or the tangent of the thrust angle with respect to the local horizontal, are controlled as functions of time to minimize losses. Angle of attack can be increased as dynamic pressure decreases beyond the “max q” point, subject to limitations on vehicle bending moments. Tangent of the thrust angle usually starts at a high value and is reduced according to a linear or other specified schedule, i.e., the slope B is usually negative..

17. EXTROVERTSpace Propulsion 03 Launch Trajectories

18. EXTROVERTSpace Propulsion 03

19. EXTROVERTSpace Propulsion 03 Acceleration During Launch

20. EXTROVERTSpace Propulsion 03 Interplanetary Trajectories Earth-Mars Hohmann scheme 1.Escape velocity from Earth – to an orbit around the Sun, with zero velocity with respect to Earth. 1.Impulsive burn to get into transfer orbit. 2.Impulsive burn at Mars orbit to match velocity with Mars. Change in orbital energy per unit mass (w.r.t. Earth) UTUT  U Mars

21. EXTROVERTSpace Propulsion 03 Data on Solar System Destinations BodyRelative Mass Rel. Mean Dia. Orbit radius, Millions of km EccentricityPeriod, Earth yrs Sun332,488.109.15 Mercury0.05430.3857.90.20560.241 Venus0.81360.967108.10.00680.615 Earth1.00001.000149.50.01671.000 Mars0.10690.523227.80.09341.881 Jupiter318.3510.97777.80.048411.862 Saturn95.39.031426.10.055729.458 Uranus14.583.722869.10.047284.015 Neptune17.263.384495.60.0086164.788 Plato<0.1?0.455898.90.2485247.697 Moon0.01230.2730.38440.054927.322 days Mass of Earth = 5.975 E24 kg.Mean Diameter = 12742. 46km

22. EXTROVERTSpace Propulsion 03 Earth-Mars Oberth Scheme Escape from Earth while carrying enough propellant to produce the transfer velocity is wasteful in work against gravity. Can be avoided by achieving the right velocity magnitude and direction in the first maneuver. The launch velocity is larger at Earth, directly placing the vehicle in the Hohman transfer ellipse. Thus Complications: 1) Atmospheric drag 2) Orbit desired @ Mars

23. EXTROVERTSpace Propulsion 03 Faster Trajectories for Human-Carrying Missions Four impulsive burns: 1.Escape from Earth towards Mars with an excess over the Hohman transfer velocity. 2.Increment to get captured into Mars orbit: Most trajectories put the vehicle in Mars orbit, moving slower around the Sun than Mars – need a burn to get captured. 3.Opposite of the above to escape Mars into a transfer trajectory towards Earth 4.Burn to decelerate to a safe Earth re-entry velocity. MonthsTotal delta-v, fps 5120,000 855,000 1225,000 1519,000

24. EXTROVERTSpace Propulsion 03 Values for Sample Missions: Garrison & Stuhler  V m/s Earth- LEO (270km above Earth’s surface)7600 LEO – GEO (42,227 km radius)4200 LEO – Earth escape3200 LEO – Lunar Orbit (7 days)3900 LEO – Mars orbit (0.7 yrs)5700 LEO – Mars orbit (40 days)85000 LEO – Neptune Orbit (50 yr)13,400 LEO – Neptune Orbit (29.9 yr)8,700 LEO – Solar escape70,000 LEO – 1000 AU (50yr) LEO – Alpha Centauri (50yr) 142,000 30 Million 1 Astronautical Unit = mean distance from Earth to Sun = 149,558,000km Impulsive burns assumed in all the above.

25. EXTROVERTSpace Propulsion 03 Spiral Transfer: Low, Continuous Thrust Delta v required is greater than that for Hohman transfer, but a small engine can be used. Also, possibility of using solar energy as the heat source. Thrust applied along the circumferential direction is then given by or with initial conditions at where Solution shows that the delta v required with a very small thrust-to-EarthWeight ratio is about 2.4 times the impulsive-burn delta v. As thrust-to-weight approaches 1, this comes down close to 1.

26. EXTROVERTSpace Propulsion 03 Spiral Transfer: Earth-Moon “SMART-1 to continue alternating between long and short thrust arcs until 15 Nov lunar capture: orbital period 4 days, 19 hrs; apogee altitude has increased from 35,880 km to 200,000 km; lunar commissioning, science operations begin in mid-Jan 2005” http://sci.esa.int/

27. EXTROVERTSpace Propulsion 03 Gravity Assist Maneuvers http://science.howstuffworks.com/framed.htmhttp://science.howstuffworks.com/framed.htm? parent=question102.htm&url=http://www.jpl.nasa.gov /basics/bsf4-1.html Vehicle approaches another planet with velocity greater than escape velocity for that planet. Planet’s gravity adds momentum to the vehicle in desired direction. With respect to the planet, vehicle gains speed on approach and decelerates as it moves away. But when the planet’s velocity is considered, there is net gain in angular momentum with respect to the Sun.

28. EXTROVERTSpace Propulsion 03

29. EXTROVERTSpace Propulsion 03 Orbital Elements a: semi-major axis. e: eccentricity. i: inclination of the angular momentum vector from the Z-axis. (Z is usually Earth’s axis of rotation.  : right ascension of the ascending node: Angle from the vernal equinox to the “ascending node.” “node” : one of two points where the satellite orbit intersects the X-Y (equatorial) plane. Ascending node is the point where the satellite passes through the equatorial plane moving from south to north. Right ascension is measured in degrees of right-handed rotation about the pole (Z axis).  : argument of perigee. The angle from the ascending node to the eccentricity vector, measured in degrees in the direction of the satellite’s position. The eccentricity vector points from the center of the Earth to the perigee with magnitude equal to the eccentricity of the orbit, in degrees. : “true anomaly”. Angle from the eccentricity vector to satellite’s position vector, measured in the direction of the satellite motion. Can also use the time since perigee passage, in degrees.