1. Nuclear Physics

2. Atomic structure
A Lithium atom
protons
neutrons
electrons
An atom consists of a small central nucleus composed of protons and neutrons surrounded by electrons.
An atom will always have the same number of electrons as protons.

3. Atomic and mass number
The atomic number (Z) of an atom is equal to the number of protons in its nucleus.
The mass number (A) of an atom is equal to the number of protons plus neutrons in its nucleus.
protons = 3
neutrons = 4
electrons = 3
This Lithium atom has:
atomic number = 3
mass number = 7

4. Properties of protons, neutrons and electrons
Position in the atom
Relative mass
Relative electric charge
PROTON
NEUTRON
ELECTRON
nucleus 1
+ 1
nucleus 1
outside nucleus
0.005
- 1

5. Ions
An atom becomes an ion when it loses or gains one or more electrons.
Lithium atom
Positive Lithium ion
Negative Lithium ion
protons
neutrons
electrons

6. The three isotopes of hydrogen
The atoms of an element always have the same number of protons.
Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons.
The three isotopes of hydrogen
neutrons
hydrogen 1
hydrogen 2 (deuterium)
hydrogen 3 (tritium)
Note: The number after ‘hydrogen’ is the mass number of the isotope.

7. C Nuclear notation 14 6 carbon 14
An isotope of carbon consists of 6 protons and 8 neutrons. This can be written as:
carbon 14
Number of protons PLUS neutrons (Mass number)
OR: C 14 6
Chemical symbol
Number of protons (Atomic number)

8. Question 1
An isotope of uranium (chemical symbol U) consists of 92 protons and 143 neutrons. Give the two different ways of notating this isotope.
The mass number of the Uranium isotope:
= = 235
235 U
uranium 235
AND 92

9. Question 2 N Co Au Pu (a) (b) (c) (d)
Determine the number of protons and neutrons in the isotopes notated below: N 13 7
(a) Co 60 27
(b)
protons = 7
p = 27
neutrons = 6
n = 33 Au
197 79
(c) Pu
239 94
(d)
p = 79
p = 94
n = 118
n = 145
Note: Apart from the smallest atoms, most nuclei have more neutrons than protons.

10. Alpha decay Alpha particles consist of two protons plus two neutrons.
They are emitted by some of the isotopes of the heaviest elements.

11. Example: The decay of Uranium 23892 Th
234 90 α 4 2 +
Uranium 238 decays to Thorium 234 plus an alpha particle.
Notes:
1. The mass and atomic numbers must balance on each side of the equation: (238 = AND 92 = 90 +2)
2. The alpha particle can also be notated as: He 4 2

12. Question
Show the equation for Plutonium 239 (Pu) decaying by alpha emission to Uranium (atomic number 92). Pu
239 94 U
235 92 α 4 2 +

13. Beta decay Beta particles consist of high speed electrons.
They are emitted by isotopes that have too many neutrons.
One of these neutrons decays into a proton and an electron. The proton remains in the nucleus but the electron is emitted as the beta particle.

14. Example: The decay of Carbon 146 N 14 7 β- -1 +
Carbon 14 decays to Nitrogen 14 plus a beta particle.
Notes:
1. The beta particle, being negatively charged, has an effective atomic number of minus one.
2. The beta particle can also be notated as: e -1

15. Question
Show the equation for Sodium 25 (Na), atomic number 11, decaying by beta emission to Magnesium (Mg). Na 25 11 Mg 12 β- -1 +

16. Gamma decay
Gamma decay is the emission of electromagnetic radiation from an unstable nucleus
Gamma radiation often occurs after a nucleus has emitted an alpha or beta particle.
Example: Cobalt 90 Co 90 27 Co 90 27 γ +
Cobalt 90 with excess ENERGY decays to
Cobalt 90 with less ENERGY plus gamma radiation.

17. Changing elements alpha DOWN by 2 DOWN by 4 beta UP by 1 NO CHANGE
Both alpha and beta decay cause the an isotope to change atomic number and therefore element. Alpha decay also causes a change in mass number.
Decay type
Atomic number
Mass number
alpha
DOWN by 2
DOWN by 4
beta
UP by 1
NO CHANGE
gamma

18. Complete the decay equations below:Fe 59 26 Co 27 β- -1 + Ra
224 88 Rn
220 86 α 4 2 N 16 7 O 8
(a)
(c)
(b)

19. Write equations showing how Lead 202 could decay into Gold
Write equations showing how Lead 202 could decay into Gold. (This cannot happen in reality!)
Element
Sym Z
Platinum Pt 78
Gold Au 79
Mercury Hg 80
Thallium Tl 81
Lead Pb 82
Bismuth Bi 83 Pb
202 82 Hg
198 80 α 4 2 + Hg
198 80 Pt
194 78 α 4 2 + Pt
194 78 Au 79 β- -1 +
There are other correct solutions

20. Background radiation
Background radiation is ionising radiation from space (cosmic rays), devices such as X-ray tubes, and from radioactive isotopes in the environment (for example radon gas from rocks in the ground).
Most of this radiation occurs naturally but a small amount is due to nuclear weapon testing and nuclear power stations.

21. Background radiation pie-chart

22. Nuclear reactions ANSWERS
In text questions:
92p, 143n
23890Th = 90p + 138n; Ra = 88p + 136n
4019K = 19p + 21n; 4020Ca = 20p +20n
Summary questions:
(a) 6p + 6n
(b) 27p + 33n
(c) 92p + 143n
(a) 92p + 146n
(b) 90p + 144n
(c) 91p + 143n

23. The Plum Pudding Atomic Model
Before about 1910 many scientists believed that an atom consisted of:
Positively charged matter spread out like a pudding embedded by negatively charged electrons (like plums in a pudding).
The ‘Plum Pudding’ Model

24. Rutherford’s Atomic Model
In 1909 Ernest Rutherford suggested that an atom consists of a a tiny positively charged nucleus surrounded by negatively charged electrons.
Lord Rutherford

25. Geiger & Marsden’s alpha particle scattering experiment
In 1909 Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden performed an experiment using alpha particles to determine which of the two models was the better in describing the structure of an atom.
Geiger and Marsden

26. The apparatus 2 5 4 3 1

27. What was observed alpha source thin metal foil
Virtually all of the alpha particles went straight through the metal foil.
A few alpha particles were deflected through a small angle.
About 1 in were deflected backwards.

28. How the results can be explained
nucleus (highly enlarged)
atom
Deflections occur because there is a force between the charged nucleus and the positively charged alpha particles.
Most of the alpha particles do not go near enough to the nucleus to be deflected.
Backwards deflections occur when the alpha particles make near head on collisions with the positively charged nucleus.

29. How their results supported Rutherford’s atomic model
The relatively small number of deflections indicates that most of the atom is empty space with only a very small nucleus.
The backward deflections can only occur if the nucleus is positively charged and contains most of the atom’s mass.
The ‘plum pudding’ model would not produce backward deflections.

30. Choose appropriate words to fill in the gaps below:
According to __________ an atom consists of a tiny, ___________ charged __________ surrounded by a cloud of ________ electrons. The nucleus also contains most of the ______ of an atom.
This model was supported by the ______ particle scattering experiment in In this experiment most alpha particles passed ________ through a thin metal foil with only about 1 in being deflected _________.
Rutherford
positively
nucleus
negative
mass
alpha
straight
backwards
WORD SELECTION:
Rutherford
mass
backwards
negative
straight
positively
alpha
nucleus

31. Nuclear fission Nuclear fission is the splitting of an atomic nucleus.
Nuclear fission can be used as an energy source in a nuclear reactor.
There are two fissionable substances in common use in nuclear reactors, uranium 235 and plutonium 239.

32. Chain reaction
The fission of a nucleus of Uranium 235 can be initiated by a neutron.
When this nucleus splits further neutrons are produced.
These neutrons in turn can cause more nuclei to split.
An avalanche effect, called a ‘chain reaction’ can then occur.
A chain reaction
neutron

33. Nuclear fission reactor5 2 6 1
3 & 4 7

34. Nuclear reactor parts 1. Fuel rods
These contain U235 or Pu239. They become very hot due to nuclear fission.
2. Control rods
Made of boron, when placed in-between the fuel rods these absorb neutrons and so reduce the rate of fission. Their depth is adjusted to maintain a constant rate of fission.
3. Moderator
This surrounds the fuel rods and slows neutrons down to make further fission more likely. The moderator can be water or graphite.
4. Coolant
This transfers the heat energy of the fuel rods to the heat exchanger. Coolant be water, carbon dioxide gas or liquid sodium.
5. Heat exchanger
Here water is converted into high pressure steam using the heat energy of the coolant.
6. Reactor core
This is a thick steal vessel designed to withstand the very high pressure and temperature in the core.
7. Concrete shield
This absorbs the radiation coming from the nuclear reactor.

35. Choose appropriate words to fill in the gaps below:
Nuclear fission is the _________ up of the nucleus of an atom into two smaller nuclei. ________ and neutrons are also usually emitted.
Nuclear ________ use Uranium _____ or Plutonium _____to produce energy by nuclear ________. A controlled chain reaction is maintained by the use of _______ rods which absorb some of the _________ produced.
An _______ bomb is the consequence of an uncontrolled chain reaction.
splitting
energy
reactors
235
239
fission
control
neutrons
atomic
WORD SELECTION:
reactors
energy
239
atomic
splitting
neutrons
235
fission
control

36. Hydrogen nuclei undergo fusion in stars to make helium nuclei
Nuclear fusion
Nuclear fusion is the joining of two atomic nuclei to form a larger one.
Hydrogen nuclei undergo fusion in stars to make helium nuclei

37. Energy from fusion
Nuclear fusion is the process by which energy is released in the Sun and other stars.
It is also the energy source of the hydrogen bomb.

38. Nuclear fusion reactors
Scientists are currently working to make nuclear fusion reactors.
The fuel for fusion reactors is the isotope hydrogen 2 (deuterium) which is found in sea water.
An experimental fusion reactor in Seatle USA

39. Virtual Physics Laboratory Simulations NOTE: Links work only in school
Alpha Scattering.exe
Geiger Muller Tube
Nuclear Stability With stability curve
Nuclear Reactions Fission & Fusion with binding energy

40. Online Simulations
Atoms, ions & isotopes (GCSE) - Powerpoint presentation by KT
Build an atom - eChalk
Atomic Structure Quiz - by KT - Microsoft WORD
Hidden Pairs Game on Atomic Structure - by KT - Microsoft WORD
Fifty-Fifty Game on What particles are positive - by KT - Microsoft WORD
Rutherford Scattering - PhET - How did Rutherford figure out the structure of the atomic nucleus without looking at it? Simulate the famous experiment in which he disproved the Plum Pudding model of the atom by observing alpha particles bouncing off atoms and determining that they must have a small core.
Rutherford Scattering Experiment Thomson Model of evenly distributed charge and Nuclear Model - Michael Fowler
Types of Radiation - S-Cool section on types of radiations including an animation of absorption and a couple of decay equations to fill in on screen.
Alpha Decay - PhET - Watch alpha particles escape from a Polonium nucleus, causing radioactive alpha decay. See how random decay times relate to the half life.
Beta Decay - PhET - Watch beta decay occur for a collection of nuclei or for an individual nucleus
Decay series - Fendt
Andy Darvill's Radioactivity Pages
Understanding Radiation - National Radiological Protection Board - Useful starting point to get at useful areas of the site.
Nuclear Fission - PhET - Start a chain reaction, or introduce non-radioactive isotopes to prevent one. Control energy production in a nuclear reactor!
Nuclear Fission - Powerpoint presentation by Richard Miller of 5SJW (2005)
Nuclear Fission - Powerpoint presentation that includes a link to the 'mousetrap' demonstration
Power Station Animation - eChalk
Managing a Nuclear Power Plant Simulation - by Henrik Eriksson
BBC AQA GCSE Bitesize Revision:
Atoms, isotopes & radioactivity - Core Science
Structure of an atom
Isotopes
Evidence for atomic structure
Alpha, beta & gamma radiation
Detecting radiation
Radioactive decay equations
Natural sources of background radiation
Artificial radiation
Nuclear fission
Nuclear fusion