1. Biodiversity and Conservation
Mark Madden and Edward Sarisley
MCLFS 660

2. Overview Part I: Characteristics of Biodiversity
Part II: Causes of Biodiversity Loss
Part III: Solutions of Biodiversity Loss

3. Part I: What is Biodiversity?
Biodiversity-the variety of life at the levels of genes, populations, species, and ecological communities[4]
Genetic Diversity-variety of genes within a species[16]
Species Diversity-variety of species within a habitat or region[16]
Ecosystem Diversity- diversity of ecosystems in a given place[16]

4. Part I: What is Biodiversity? Why Preserve it?
Healthy Ecosystems Provide:
Ecosystem Services
Erosion Protection
Nutrient Storage and Recycling
Pollution Breakdown/Absorption
Contributes to Climate Stability
Biological Services
Medicine
Wild Genetic Varieties
Future Resources
Social Benefits
Ecotourism
Research/Education[15]

5. Part II: Causes of Biodiversity Loss
Habitat Loss
Exotic/Invasive Species
Chemical Pollutants
Over-Hunting
Loss of Genetic Diversity

6. Part II: Causes of Biodiversity Loss: Habitat Loss
The #1 threat to biodiversity[9]
95% of Earth is under human influence[7]
3% of land designed as protected[7]
.25% of the world’s body’s of water are protected[8]

7. Part II: Causes of Biodiversity Loss: Invasive Species
Invasive Species-introduced species that thrives, spreads, and becomes so abundant that it harms native species or ecosystems[4]
Case Study: Kudzu Vine (Pueraraia lobata)
Farmers were encouraged to plant to reduce soil erosion
Herbivores didn’t eat; outcompeted native species
Currently covers 7 million acres in the US[9]
Case Study: Lionfish (Pterois volitans and Pterois miles)
Native to Indonesia/Pacific Ocean; Introduced into the Caribbean

8. Part II: Causes of Biodiversity Loss: Invasive Species
Kudzu
Lionfish
Interview w/ NOAA Scientist)

9. Part II: Causes of Biodiversity Loss: Chemical Pollutants
Chemical Selectivity: many pesticides used in agriculture are toxic to a broad-range of species; others are selective and only toxic to a small group of species
Case Studies:
Glyphosphate (active ingredient in “Round Up” Herbicide-used on crop and non-crop vegetation where total vegetation control is desired[10]
Picadarin (Insect Repellent)-targets some insect species and not others[11]

10. Part II: Causes of Biodiversity Loss: Chemical Pollutants
Persistence in Environment-chemicals that persist in the environment (resist environmental degradation) are referred to as Persistent Organic Pollutants[12]
Average Persistence of Organochlorine Pesticides in Soil[6]

11. Part II: Causes of Biodiversity Loss: Chemical Pollutants
Bioaccumulation- accumulation of a chemical in the adipose fatty tissue of an individual organism[9]
Biomagnification- accumulation of chemical compounds in plant and animal tissue that increases in higher levels of the food chain[4]
Biomagnification vs. Bioaccumulation Animation

12. Part II: Causes of Biodiversity Loss: Over-Harvest
Overharvest-harvest that exceeds the productive capacity of a species and causes population decline[4]
Can occur with crops, plants, animals, or any natural resource
Case Study: Whaling
Hunted for blubber, oil, meat, baleen
1930: 50,000+ whales a year were hunted with modern techniques
1986: International Whaling Ban*
*Excludes whaling for scientific research purposes

13. Part II: Causes of Biodiversity Loss: Over-Harvest

14. Part II: Causes of Biodiversity Loss: Genetic Diversity
Artificial Selection/Selective Breeding-saving crop seeds that have the trait(s) of interest to plant for the next generation
Began 10,000 years ago with modern agriculture
75% of the genetic diversity of agricultural crops has been lost[14]

15. Part II: Causes of Biodiversity Loss: Genetic Diversity
Genetically Engineered Crops-transfer of DNA segments (for pesticide resistance, frost resistance, etc) from one species to another[4]
Examples:
Monstanto: “Roundup Ready” Herbicide Resistant Seeds
Golden Rice: Enzymes needed to make beta-carotene (Vitamin A)
PBS NOVA: Engineer a Crop

16. Part III: Solutions to Biodiversity Loss
Choosing Sites to Preserve
SLOSS Controversy
Wildlife Corridors
Genetic Variability
Captive Breeding Programs
Sustainable Agriculture
Human Population

17. Part III: Solutions to Biodiversity Loss: Choosing Sites to Preserve
Biological “Hotspots”-areas to focus conservation efforts through establishing parks/reserves. Based on:
# Vascular Plant Species
# Endemic Plants
How much habitat is threatened by humans[1]
Challenges to Biological “Hotspots”
Assumes habitats rich in plants are also rich in animals
Discrimination to temperate/arctic ecosystems [1]
How to

18. Part III: Solutions to Biodiversity Loss: Choosing Sites to Preserve
34 Biodiversity “Hotspots” Identified by Conservation International
Hotspots cover 2.3 % of Earth’s surface but have 42% of terrestrial vertebrate species and 50% of world’s plants

19. Part III: Solutions to Biodiversity Loss: Choosing Sites to Preserve
Gap Analysis-identifies places of conservation through geographic information systems
Combines maps of rare, threatened, and common species, with maps of vegetation and habitat types to predict distribution of species
Current maps of reserves are compared to predictions to identify areas that do not overlap (“gaps”)
Critics: satellite image quality is too low; how valid is extrapolating plants to animals [2]

20. Part III: Solutions to Biodiversity Loss: SLOSS Controversy
SLOSS-”Single Large or Several Small” Reserves
Based on Macarthur and Wilson (1967)’s Theory of Island Biogeography
Would more species be maintained in 1, 100 ha preserve or 10, 10 ha acre preserves?
No Single Answer
Depends on each ecosystem and the species within them
Edge Effects-differences in environmental and biotic conditions between the edges and interiors of habitat patches [4]
Theory of Island Biogeography-large islands have more species of plants and animals that small islands. More species on islands closer to the mainland than islands farther from the mainland.

21. Part III: Solutions to Biodiversity Loss: SLOSS Controversy

22. Part III: Solutions to Biodiversity Loss: Wildlife Corridors
Wildlife Corridors-narrow strip of linear habitat that facilitates dispersal of organisms between patches of larger habitat patches[4]
Case Study: Florida panther (Puma concolr coryi)
Tunnels under highways have been constructed linking habitat patches
Habitat corridors Benefit Isolated Plants

23. Part III: Solutions to Biodiversity Loss: Wildlife Corridors
Potential Downsides
No use
Humans use for recreation instead
Ambush predators
Example: Diamond rattlesnake (Crotalus adamanteus)
Facilitate Homogeneity instead of heterozygosity
Spread of exotic species
Example: feral Pigs (Sus scrofa)

24. Part III: Solutions to Biodiversity Loss: Genetic Variability
Effective Population Size (Ne)-minimum population size in which the % of alleles do not change significantly through generations
“Buffers” the effects of genetic drift
Equation: [Ht/Ho]=1-[1/2Ne]t
Ht=Heterozygosity after t generations
Ho=Original Heterozygosity
Assumes no generational overlap and all individuals breed
Smaller Populations,
Faster heterozygosity declines
Greater chances of genetic drift
Greater chances of inbreeding[3]

25. Part III: Solutions to Biodiversity Loss: Genetic Variability
Effect Population Size Practice Problem
Calculate the effective population size of the Florida panther to retain 98% heterozygosity over 100 generations.
[Ht/Ho]=1-[1/2Ne]t
.95=1-[1/2Ne]100
.95=e-100/2Ne
Ne=4,950 individuals

26. Part III: Solutions to Biodiversity Loss: Captive Breeding
Captive Breeding-the removal of all or some of the remaining individuals from a wild population to a facility where young can be produced and cared for, with the objective of creating large numbers of individuals for re-relapse into the wild
Genetic Diversity should be preserved by:
More adults
Even sex ratio
Pedigree tracking to prevent inbreeding[4]

27. Part III: Solutions to Biodiversity Loss: Captive Breeding
A Success Story: California Condor (Gymnogyps californianus): Ate lead ammunition left behind by hunters
1986: 8 remained in the wild; all captured and captive breeding program began
2008: 320 individuals; half released into the wild
Critics
Doesn’t address the root problem (habitat loss, invasive species, pollution, lack of food, etc
Genetic Drift/Bottleneck Effect
Costly[4]

28. Part III: Solutions to Biodiversity Loss: Captive Breeding
California Condor on National Geographic
Condor’s wingspan as much as 9 feet

29. Part III: Solutions to Biodiversity Loss: Sustainable Agriculture
Sustainable Agriculture-maintains agriculture productivity indefinitely
Guiding Features
Crop Rotation
Tillage Practices (Conserve soil/water)
Diversified Operations
Integrated Pest Management[6]

30. Part III: Solutions to Biodiversity Loss: Human Population
World Population must stabilize in order to sustain global biodiversity indefinitely
But how? Increase Quality of Life
Empower women to control their own fertility
Education and economic opportunities
Contraceptives[4]
“The raging monster upon the land is population growth. In its presence, sustainability is but a theoretical construct.”-Wilson (1992)[5]

31. Part III: Solutions to Biodiversity Loss: Human Population
Population Connection “World Population”
US Census World Population Estimate

32. Part III: Solutions to Biodiversity Loss: Laws
National Environmental Policy Act
Provides for the consideration of environmental issues in Federal Agency planning and decision making
Environmental Impact Statement
Required for projects on federal land or federal projects on private land
Cost vs. benefit analysis
Weighs positive outcomes of project vs. environmental effects[6]

33. Part III: Solutions to Biodiversity Loss: Laws
Endangered Species Act
Protects all endangered or threatened species and their habitats
Unlawful to kill, disturb, possess, or sell a listed species[6]
10 Critically Endangered Animals

34. Part III: Solutions to Biodiversity Loss: How Can YOU Get Involved?
The Student Conservation Association
Endangered, Threatened, and Special Concern Species in CT
Unit Assignment: Biodiversity and Conservation in Coral Reefs

35. References
[1] Myers, N Threatened biotas: “Hot spots” in tropical forests. Environmentalist 8: , 1990
[2] Schmidt, K Biodiversity: Some biologists see holes in gap analysis. Science 274: 917.
[3] Futuyma DJ Evolutionary Biology, 2nd Ed. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Assoc., Inc.
[4] Kareiva P and Marvier M Conservation Science: Balancing the needs of people and nature. 1st ed. Greenwood Village, CO: Roberts and Company Publishers
[5] Wilson EO The Diversity of Life. New York, NY: WW Norton and Company.

36. References
[6] Bottrell, D Modules in the MCLFS 660 Course. University of Maryland.
[7] Western, D Why manage nature? In Conservation for the Twenty-First Century, eds. D Western, MC Pearl, pp New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
[8] Ocean Voice International Status of the world ocean and biodiversity. Sea Wind 9: 1-72.
[9] Friedland, A, Relyea, R, and Courard-Hauri, D Environmental Science for AP. New York, NY. W.H. Freeman and Company

37. References
[10] Technical Fact Sheet on: Glyphosphate. nd. Environmental Protection Agency. Retrieved 2/15/15 from: sa.pdf
[11] Technical Fact Sheet: Picadarin Environmental Protection Agency. Retrieved 2/15/15 from: tration/fs_PC _01-May-05.pdf
[12] Ritter L, Solomon KR, Forget J. Stemeroff M; O'Leary C. Persistent organic pollutants". United Nations Environment Programme. Retrieved 2/15/15 from
[13] History of Whaling Whale Facts. Retreived 2/15/15 from

38. References
[14] Harvesting Nature’s Diversity. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Retrieved 2/15/15 from: m
[15] Shah A Why is biodiversity important? Who cares? Global Issues. Retrieved 2/15/15 from: biodiversity-important-who-cares
[16] Australian Museum What is Biodiversity? Retrieved 2/15/15 from: .