1. Double bonds or not
A saturated fat has no C=C double bonds (alkene functional groups) and is usually a solid fat like margarine or animal fat.
An unsaturated fat has C=C double bonds and is usually an oil like vegetable oil.

2. Example question

3. Mark scheme

4. Making margarine
To make margarine we have to saturate vegetable oil by bubbling hydrogen gas through the oil.
This process is called hydrogenation

5. Is a fat or oil saturated or not?
We can test for this by adding bromine water.
If there are double bonds present the bromine water changes from orange/brown to colourless.

6. Example question

7. Mark scheme

8. Hydrolysis
When an ester is hydrolysed it goes back to an acid and alcohol
We can hydrolyse by adding acid or alkali (NaOH).

9. Example question

10. Mark scheme

11. Energy changes in chemistry

12. Quiz
When a chemical reaction takes place heat may be given out or taken in.
Can you remember the word we use when heat is given out?
Can you remember the word we use when heat is taken in?

13. What do I need to know?
Recall and use the terms ENDOTHERMIC and EXOTHERMIC
Describe examples of ENDOTHERMIC and EXOTHERMIC reactions.
Use simple energy level diagrams to represent ENDOTHERMIC and EXOTHERMIC reactions.

14. Change in energy
Chemical reactants have a certain amount of chemical energy stored within them.
When the reaction has taken place they have either more or less energy stored within them than before.

15. Definitions
When heat is given out (exothermic) then the products have less energy than they did before. They have lost it to the surroundings.
When heat is taken in (endothermic) then the products have more energy than they had before. They have taken it from the surroundings.

16. Energy level diagrams
Which diagram do you think is endothermic and which is exothermic?
Heat given out
Heat taken in

17. Energy level diagrams Endothermic Exothermic Heat given out
Heat taken in
Heat given out
Energy level of products is higher than reactants so heat taken in.
Energy level of products is lower than reactants so heat given out.

18. Example question

19. Mark scheme

20. Bond enthalpies
C7.2

21. Quick quiz
Reactions where the products are at a lower energy than the reactants are endothermic (TRUE/FALSE)
Activation energy is the amount of energy given out when a reaction takes place (TRUE/FALSE)
A reaction which is exothermic transfers heat energy to the surroundings (TRUE/FALSE)
How can we tell if a reaction is exothermic or endothermic?
Sketch the energy profile for an endothermic reaction.
When methane (CH4) burns in oxygen (O2) bonds between which atoms need to be broken?

22. Answers TRUE FALSE FALSE Measure the temperature change
Reactions where the products are at a lower energy than the reactants are endothermic (TRUE/FALSE)
Activation energy is the amount of energy given out when a reaction takes place (TRUE/FALSE)
A reaction which is exothermic transfers heat energy to the surroundings (TRUE/FALSE)
How can we tell if a reaction is exothermic or endothermic?
Sketch the energy profile for an endothermic reaction.
When methane (CH4) burns in oxygen (O2) bonds between which atoms need to be broken?
FALSE
FALSE
TRUE
Measure the temperature change
C—H bonds and O=O bonds

23. What do I need to know?
1. Recall that energy is needed to break chemical bonds and energy is given out when chemical bonds form 2. Identify which bonds are broken and which are made when a chemical reaction takes place. 3. Use data on the energy needed to break covalent bonds to estimate the overall energy change for a reaction.

24. Activation energy revisited
What is the activation energy of a reaction?
The energy needed to start a reaction.
BUT what is that energy used for and why does the reaction need it if energy is given out overall?
The activation energy is used to break bonds so that the reaction can take place.

25. Burning methane
Consider the example of burning methane gas. CH4 + 2O2  CO2 + 2H2O This reaction is highly exothermic, it is the reaction that gives us the Bunsen flame. However mixing air (oxygen) with methane is not enough. I need to add energy (a flame).

26. What happens when the reaction gets the activation energy?
Bond
Forming
Breaking
Progress of reaction
Energy in chemicals O H C

27. Using bond enthalpies
By using the energy that it takes to break/make a particular bond we can work out the overall enthalpy/energy change for the reaction. Sum (bonds broken) – Sum (bonds made) = Energy change

28. BIN MIX
Breaking bonds is ENDOTHERMIC energy is TAKEN IN when bonds are broken Making bonds is EXOTHERMIC energy is GIVEN OUT when bonds are made.

29. Bond enthalpies Bond Bond enthalpy (kJ) C—H 435 Cl—Cl 243 C—C 348 C—Cl
346
H—H
436
H—Cl
452
H—O
463
O=O
498
C=O
804
C=C
614

30. Can you work out the energy change for this reaction?
CH4 + Cl2  CH3Cl + HCl Tip: Draw the reactants and products and work out the bonds you are breaking and the ones you are making.

31. The answer is -120 kJ

32. Example question part 1

33. Question part 2

34. Question part 3

35. Mark scheme

36. Challenge question
The true value for the energy change is often slightly different from the value calculated using bond enthalpies.
Why do you think this is?

37. Example question
The calculated value is 120 kJ

38. Mark scheme

39. Definitions
Write each of these phrases in your book with a definition in your own words:
Exothermic reaction
Endothermic reaction
Activation energy
Catalyst
Bond energy/enthalpy

40. How did you do? Exothermic reaction
A reaction which gives energy out to the surroundings.
Endothermic reaction
A reaction which takes in energy from the surroundings.
Activation energy
The energy required to start a reaction by breaking bonds in the reactants
Catalyst
A substance that increases the rate of a reaction by providing an alternative pathway with lower activation energy. It is not used up in the process of the reaction
Bond energy/enthalpy
The energy required to break a certain type of bond. The negative value is the energy given out when that bond is made.

41. Popular exam question
Explain why a reaction is either exothermic or endothermic?

42. Popular exam question
Explain why a reaction is either exothermic or endothermic?
In a chemical reactions some bonds are broken and some bonds are made.
Breaking bonds takes in energy.
Making bonds gives out energy.
If the energy given out making bonds is higher than the energy needed to break them the reaction is exothermic.
If the energy needed to break bonds is higher than the energy given out making them the reaction is endothermic.

43. C7.3 Reversible Reactions & Dynamic Equilibria
Chemical Equilibria
C7.3 Reversible Reactions & Dynamic Equilibria

44. What do I need to know?
State that some chemical reactions are reversible
Describe how reversible reactions reach a state of equilibrium
Explain this using dynamic equilibrium model.

45. Reversible or not reversible
Until now, we were careful to say that most chemical reactions were not reversible – They could not go back to the reactants once the products are formed.

46. Example
In the case of the vast majority of chemical reactions this is true, the reaction of methane and oxygen for example:
CH4(g) + O2(g)   CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
It is almost impossible to return the carbon dioxide and water to the original methane and oxygen.

47. Reversible
Some chemical reactions, however, will go backwards and forwards depending on the conditions.
CoCl2·6H2O(s)  CoCl2(s) + 6H2O(l)
pink blue

48. How do we write them down?
This is the symbol for used for reversible reactions.
CoCl2·6H2O(s) CoCl2(s) + 6H2O(l)

49. What is equilibrium?
Reversible reactions reach a balance point, where the amount of reactants and the amount of products formed remains constant.
This is called a position of equilibrium.

50. Dynamic Equilibrium.
In dynamic equilibrium the forward and backwards reactions continue at equal rates so the concentrations of reactants and products do not change.
On a molecular scale there is continuous change.
On the macroscopic scale nothing appears to be happening. The system needs to be closed – isolated from the outside world.

51. Example question

52. Mark scheme

53. C7.3 Controlling equilibria
Dynamic Equilibria
C7.3 Controlling equilibria

54. What do I need to know?
1. Recall that reversible reactions reach a state of dynamic equilibrium. 2. Describe how dynamic equilibria can be affected by adding or removing products and reactants. 3. Explain the difference between a “strong” and “weak” acid in terms of equilibria

55. Position of the equilibrium
Equilibrium can “lie” to the left or right.
This is “in favour of products” or “in favour of reactants”
Meaning that once equilibrium has been reached there could be more products or more reactants in the reaction vessel.

56. Le Chatelier’s principle
If you remove product as it is made then equilibrium will move to the right to counteract the change
If you add more reactant then equilibrium will move to the right to counteract the change.
In industry we recycle reactants back in and remove product as it is made to push the equilibrium in favour of more product.

57. Complete
When a system is at__________ to make more product you can_________ product or add more __________ for example by recycling them back in. To return to reactants you ______ product or remove_________. [equilibrium, add, reactant, remove, product]

58. Strong and weak acids HCl  H+ + Cl- CH3COOH CH3COO- + H+
A strong acid is one which is FULLY IONISED in water. It will have a high hydrogen ion concentration
HCl  H+ + Cl-
A weak acid is one which is NOT fully ionised and is in equilibrium. It has a low hydrogen ion concentration
CH3COOH CH3COO- + H+
Caution – weak and strong are not the same as concentration.

60. Mark scheme

61. Example question

62. Mark scheme

63. Practicing definitions
Write each of these phrases in your book with a definition in your own words:
Reversible reaction
Dynamic equilibrium
Position of equilibrium
Strong acid
Weak acid

64. How did you do?
Reversible reaction A reaction that can proceed in the forward or reverse directions (represented by two arrows in an equation). Dynamic equilibrium The point where the rate of the forward reaction = rate of the reverse reaction. Position of equilibrium The point where there is no further change in the concentration of either reactants or products. The position can lie to the left (favouring reactants) or right (favouring products). Strong acid An acid that is completely dissociated in water Weak acid An acid that is only partly dissociated in water because the reaction is in dynamic equilibrium and favours the reactants (LHS).

65. Popular exam question
Ethanoic acid (CH3COOH) is a weak acid but hydrochloric acid is a strong acid. Use ideas about ion formation and dynamic equilibrium to explain this difference.

66. Popular exam question
Ethanoic acid (CH3COOH) is a weak acid but hydrochloric acid is a strong acid. Use ideas about ion formation and dynamic equilibrium to explain this difference.
Hydrochloric acid ionises completely
So hydrogen ion concentration is high
Ethanoic acid only partly dissociates because the reaction is reversible
Equilibrium is mainly to the left
So hydrogen ion concentration is low.

67. C7.4 – Analytical Procedures
Analysis
C7.4 – Analytical Procedures

68. What do I need to know?
1. Recall the difference between qualitative and quantitative methods of analysis. 2. Describe how analysis must be carried out on a sample that represents the bulk of the material under test 3. Explain why we need standard procedures for the collection, storage and preparation of samples for analysis

69. Qualitative vs. Quantitative
A qualitative test is usually very quick. It can give vital information without needing to wait too long for it.
A quantitative test gives precise values, for example for a concentration in Moldm-3
Examples of qualitative tests include universal indicator, silver nitrate for halide ions and bromine water for unsaturation.
Examples of quantitative tests include titration, chromatography and spectroscopy.

70. Which sample should I test?
It is important that the sample represents the bulk of the material under test.
You may chose to test more than one sample from a range of points to ensure that you have results which represent the whole.
For example is it well mixed? Are their pockets of higher concentration/different composition?

71. Chemical industry
Analysis of samples is crucial to the chemical industry to ensure the quality of the chemicals they are manufacturing. Some are analysed numerous times a day or even within an hour.
To maintain consistency it is essential that we use standard procedures to:
collect the sample
store the sample
prepare the sample for analysis
analyse the sample.

72. C7.4 – paper chromatography

73. Chromatography

74. Solvents The mobile phase is the solvent – the part that moves
2. In paper chromatography it is water or ethanol

75. Paper/column
The stationary phase is the paper in paper chromatography or the column in gas chromatography.
In thin layer chromatography it is silica gel on a glass plate
The stationary phase does not move.

76. How does the technique work?
In chromatography, substances are separated by movement of a mobile phase through a stationary phase. Each component in a mixture will prefer either the mobile phase OR the stationary phase. The component will be in dynamic equilibrium between the stationary phase and the mobile phase.

77. Substance A This is substance A
Substance A prefers the stationary phase and doesn’t move far up the paper/column.
The equilibrium lies in favour of the stationary phase.

78. Substance B This is substance B
Substance B prefers the mobile phase and moves a long way up the paper/column
The equilibrium lies in favour of the mobile phase

79. Using a reference
In chromatography we can sometimes use a known substance to measure other substances against.
This will travel a known distance compared to the solvent and is known as a standard reference.

80. Advantages of TLC
TLC has a number of advantages over paper chromatography. It is a more uniform surface chromotograms are neater and easier to interpret Solvent can be used which is useful if a substance is insoluble in water.

81. Past Paper Questions

82. Past paper question

83. Mark scheme

84. Describing how chromatography works – exam definition
stationary phase is paper and mobile phase is solvent / mobile phase moves up through stationary phase (1)
for each compound there is a dynamic equilibrium between the two phases (1)
how far each compound moves depends on its distribution between the two phases (1)

85. Using an Rf value
In order to be more precise we can use measurements on the TLC plate to compare the distance travelled by our substance (the solute) with the distance travelled by the solvent.
The Rf value is constant for a particular compound.
The distance travelled however could be different on different chromatograms.
The Rf value is always less than 1.

86. Rf value

87. Example question
This question relates to the chromatogram shown in the earlier question. Refer back…

88. Mark scheme

89. Example question

90. Mark scheme

91. Past paper question

95. Mark scheme

96. Gas-liquid chromatography
C7.4 GLC

97. What do I need to know?
recall in outline the procedure for separating a mixture by gas chromatography (gc);
understand the term retention time as applied to gc;
interpret print-outs from gc analyses.

98. Gas chromatography
The mobile phase is an unreactive gas known as the carrier gas this is usually nitrogen
The stationary phase is held inside a long column and is lots of pieces of inert solid coated in high bp liquid.
The column is coiled in an oven
The sample to be analysed is injected into the carrier gas stream at the start of the column.

99. GC

100. GC analysis
Each component of the sample mixture has a different affinity for the stationary phase compared with the mobile phase
Therefore each component travels through the column in a different time.
Compounds favouring the mobile phase (usually more volatile) emerge first.
A detector monitors the compounds coming out of the column and a recorder plots the signal as a chromatogram

101. GLC Chromatograph

102. Interpretation The time in the column is called the retention time
Retention times are characteristic so can identify a compound
Area under peak or relative heights can be used to work out relative amounts of substances

103. The key points – revise this!
the mobile phase carries the sample (1)
components are differently attracted to the stationary and mobile phases (1)
the components that are more strongly attracted to the stationary phase move more slowly (1)
the amount of each component in the stationary phase and in the mobile phase is determined by a dynamic equilibrium (1)

104. Past paper question

108. Mark scheme

109. Titration
C7.4

110. What do I need to know?
Calculate the concentration of a given volume of solution given the mass of solvent;
Calculate the mass of solute in a given volume of solution with a specified concentration;
Use the balanced equation and relative formula-masses to interpret the results of a titration;

111. Concentration
We can measure the concentration of solution in grams/litre. This is the same as g/dm3
1dm3 = 1000cm3
If I want to make a solution of 17 g/dm3 how much will I dissolve in 1dm3.
17 g
If I want to make a solution of 17g/dm3 but I only want to make 100cm3 of it how much will I dissolve?
1.7g

112. Making standard solutions
For a solution of 17g/dm3
First I will measure 17g of solid on an electronic balance

113. Making standard solutions
Now I must dissolve it in a known 1dm3 of water.
I transfer it to a volumetric flask and fill up with distilled water to about half the flask.
I then swirl to dissolve
Top up with a dropping pipette so that the meniscus is on the line.

114. How much to dissolve? Worked example:
I want to make 250cm3 of a solution of 100g/dm3.
How much solid do I transfer to my 250cm3 volumetric flask?

115. How much to dissolve? Worked example:
I want to make 250cm3 of a solution of 100g/dm3.
1. Work out the ratio of 250cm3 to 1000cm3
250/1000 = 0.25
2. I therefore need 0.25 of 100g in 250cm3 which is 0.25x100=25g

116. General rule

117. Practie - how much to dissolve?
I want to make 250cm3 of a solution of 63.5g/dm3.
How much solid do I transfer to my 250cm3 volumetric flask?
250/1000 x 63.5 = 15.9 g

118. Practice - how much to dissolve?
I want to make 100cm3 of a solution of 63.5g/dm3.
How much solid do I transfer to my 100cm3 volumetric flask?
100/1000 x 63.5 = 6.35 g

119. Concentration from mass and volume
We need to rearrange this:
To give

120. What is the concentration of?
12g dissolved in 50cm3
50g dissolved in 100cm3
47g dissolved in 1000cm3
200g dissolved in 250cm3

121. What is the concentration of?
12g dissolved in 50cm3
= 1000/50 x 12
= 240g/dm3
50g dissolved in 100cm3
=1000/100 x 50
= 500g/dm3
47g dissolved in 1000cm3
= 1000/1000 x 47
= 47g/dm3
200g dissolved in 250cm3
1000/250 x 200
= 800g/dm3

122. Solutions from stock solutions
highest concentration
use to make other solutions
Extract a portion of stock solution
as calculated
Dilute with distilled water
Making a known volume of a lower concentration

123. Making solutions from stock solutions
If I have a solution containing 63g/dm3, how do I make up 250cm3 of a solution of concentration 6.3g/dm3? To make 1dm3 of 6.3g/dm3 I would need 100cm3 To make 250cm3 of 6.3g/dm3 I would therefore need 25cm3 and make it up to 250cm3 with distilled water

124. Working out masses We can use the useful relationship
Where Mr is the molecular mass
eg Mr of NaOH is ( ) = 40
This can help us to calculate an unknown mass

125. Titration calculations
In a titration we have added a known amount of one substance usually an acid (in the burette) to a known amount of another substance usually an alkali (in the conical flask).
The amount added allows us to determine the concentration of the unknown.

126. Titration equipment

127. Using a table
It can be helpful to sketch a table to keep track of information you know…
Value
Acid
Alkali
Volume (cm3)
Mass (g)
Concentration (g/dm3)
Molecular weight (Mr)

129. Mark scheme

131. Mark scheme

132. Uncertainty
Uncertainty is a quantification of the doubt about the measurement result.
In a titration the uncertainty is the range of the results.
If results are reliable then it will be within 0.2cm3
NOTE THAT THIS IS RELIABLE NOT NECESSARILY ACCURATE

134. Mark scheme

136. Mark scheme

137. C7.5 Green Chemistry
The Chemical Industry

138. What do I need to know?
Recall and use the terms 'bulk' (made on a large scale) and 'fine' (made on a small scale) in terms of the chemical industry with examples;
Describe how new chemical products or processes are the result of an extensive programme of research and development;
Explain the need for strict regulations that control chemical processes, storage and transport.

139. Bulk processes
A bulk process manufactures large quantities of relatively simple chemicals often used as feedstocks (ingredients) for other processes.
Examples include ammonia, sulfuric acid, sodium hydroxide and phosphoric acid.
40 million tonnes of H2SO4 are made in the US every year.

140. Fine processes
Fine processes manufacture smaller quantities of much more complex chemicals including pharmaceuticals, dyes and agrochemicals.
Examples include drugs, food additives and fragrances
35 thousand tonnes of paracetamol are made in the US every year.

141. Example question

142. Mark scheme

143. Research and Development
All chemicals are produced following an extensive period of research and development.
Chemicals made in the laboratory need to be “scaled up” to be manufactured on the plant.

144. Research in the lab

145. Examples of making a process viable
Trying to find suitable conditions – compromise between rate and equilibrium
Trying to find a suitable catalyst – increases rate and cost effective as not used up in the process.

146. Catalysts Can you give a definition of a catalyst?
A substance which speeds up the rate of a chemical reaction by providing an alternative reaction pathway.
The catalyst is not used up in the process
Catalysts can control the substance formed eg Ziegler Natta catalysts.

147. Regulation of the chemical industry
Governments have strict regulations to control chemical processes
Storage and transport of chemicals requires licenses and strict protocol.
Why?
To protect people and the environment.

148. Example question

149. Mark scheme

150. Process development preparation of feedstocks synthesis
separation of products
handling of by-products and wastes
monitoring of purity

151. Example question – part 1

152. Example question part - 2

153. Mark scheme

154. Example question – part 3

155. Mark scheme

156. Factors affecting the sustainability of a process
renewable feedstock
atom economy
type of waste and disposal
energy inputs and outputs
environmental impact
health and safety risks
social and economic benefits

157. Example question

158. Mark scheme

159. Atom economy

160. Atom economy calculation
For example, what is the atom economy for making hydrogen by reacting coal with steam?
Write the balanced equation:
C(s) + 2H2O(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2(g)
Write out the Mr values underneath:
× × 2
Total mass of reactants = 48g
Mass of desired product (H2) = 4g
% atom economy = 4⁄48 × 100 = 8.3%

161. Example question

162. Example question – part 2

163. Mark scheme