1. TRANSDUCERS AND SENSORS
A transducer is a device that convert one form of energy to other form. It converts the measurand to a usable electrical signal.
In other word it is a device that is capable of converting the physical quantity into a proportional electrical quantity such as voltage or current.

2. BLOCK DIAGRAM OF TRANSDUCERS
Transducer contains two parts that are closely related to each other i.e. the sensing element and transduction element.
The sensing element is called as the sensor. It is device producing measurable response to change in physical conditions.
The transduction element convert the sensor output to suitable electrical form.

3. Functions of Transducer
1. To sense the presence, magnitude, change in, and frequency of measurand.
2. To provide an electrical output that, when appropriately processed and applied to readout device, gives accurate quantitative data about the measurand
Transducer
Electrical output
Measurand
Excitation
Measurand – refers to the quantity, property or condition which the transducer translates to an electrical signal.

4. CHARACTERISTICS OF TRANSDUCERS
Ruggedness. It should be capable of withstanding overload and some safety arrangement should be provided for overload protection.
Linearity. Its input-output characteristics should be linear and it should produce these characteristics in symmetrical way.
Repeatability. It should reproduce same output signal when the same input signal is applied again and again under fixed environmental conditions e.g. temperature, pressure, humidity etc.

5. High Output Signal Quality
High Output Signal Quality. The quality of output signal should be good i.e. the ratio of the signal to the noise should be high and the amplitude of the output signal should be enough.
High Reliability and Stability. It should give minimum error in measurement for temperature variations, vibrations and other various changes in surroundings.
Good Dynamic Response. Its output should be faithful to input when taken as a function of time. The effect is analyzed as the frequency response.

6. No Hysteretic. It should not give any hysteretic during measurement while input signal is varied from its low value to high value and vice-versa.
Residual Deformation. There should be no deformation on removal of local after long period of application.

7. TRANSDUCERS SELECTION FACTORS
Operating Principle: The transducer are many times selected on the basis of operating principle used by them. The operating principle used may be resistive, inductive, capacitive , optoelectronic, piezo electric etc.
Sensitivity: The transducer must be sensitive enough to produce detectable output.
Operating Range: The transducer should maintain the range requirement and have a good resolution over the entire range.
Accuracy: High accuracy is assured.
Cross sensitivity: It has to be taken into account when measuring mechanical quantities. There are situation where the actual quantity is being measured is in one plane and the transducer is subjected to variation in another plan.
Errors: The transducer should maintain the expected input-output relationship as described by the transfer function so as to avoid errors.

8. Transient and frequency response : The transducer should meet the desired time domain specification like peak overshoot, rise time, setting time and small dynamic error.
Loading Effects: The transducer should have a high input impedance and low output impedance to avoid loading effects.
Environmental Compatibility: It should be assured that the transducer selected to work under specified environmental conditions maintains its input- output relationship and does not break down.
Insensitivity to unwanted signals: The transducer should be minimally sensitive to unwanted signals and highly sensitive to desired signals.

9. CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS
The transducers can be classified as:
Active and passive transducers.
Analog and digital transducers.
On the basis of transduction principle used.
Primary and secondary transducer
Transducers and inverse transducers.

10. ACTIVE AND PASSIVE TRANSDUCERS
Active transducers
These transducers do not need any external source of power for their operation. Therefore they are also called as self generating type transducers.
The active transducer are self generating devices which operate under the energy conversion principle.
As the output of active transducers we get an equivalent electrical output signal e.g. temperature or strain to electric potential, without any external source of energy being used.

11. Passive Transducers
These transducers need external source of power for their operation. So they are not self generating type transducers.
A DC power supply or an audio frequency generator is used as an external power source.
These transducers produce the output signal in the form of variation in resistance, capacitance, inductance or some other electrical parameter in response to the quantity to be measured.

12. CLASSIFICATION OF ACTIVE TRANSDUCERS

13. CLASSIFICATION OF PASSIVE TRANSDUCERS

14. PRIMARY AND SECONDARY TRANSDUCERS
Some transducers contain the mechanical as well as electrical device. The mechanical device converts the physical quantity to be measured into a mechanical signal. Such mechanical device are called as the primary transducers, because they deal with the physical quantity to be measured.
The electrical device then convert this mechanical signal into a corresponding electrical signal. Such electrical device are known as secondary transducers.

15. CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS According to Transduction Principle

16. CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS Transducer and Inverse Transducer
Transducers convert non electrical quantity to electrical quantity.
INVERSE TRANSDUCER:
Inverse transducers convert electrical quantity to a non electrical quantity

17. Liquid Crystal Display
A Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) is a thin , flat panel used for electronically displaying information such as text ,images and moving picture.
Its uses include monitor for Computers, Televisions , Instrument panels Gaming devices etc.
Using polarization of lights to display objects.

18. Different types of LCDs
Passive Matrix LCDs (AMLCD) and Active Matrix LCDs (AMLCD)
Passive Twisted Nematic Displays (TNLCD)
Super Twisted nematic LCD (STNLCD)
Thin Film Transistor LCD (TFT LCD)
Reflective LCD
Rear Projection LCD

19. Liquid Crystal Display
Solid
Liquid crystal fourth state of matter
Liquid
Gas

20. What is a Liquid Crystal?
Liquid Crystal – a stable phase of matter characterized by anisotropic properties without the existence of a 3-dimensional crystal lattice – generally lying between the solid and isotropic (“liquid”) phase.
light passes through liquid crystal changes when it is stimulated by an electrical charge.
Discuss

21. Isotropic vs. Anisotropic Liquids and gases
(uniform properties in all directions).
vs. Anisotropic
Do not follow patterns, Some phases are combined and orientation is NOT the only way to characterize
Liquid Crystals
have orientational order

22. Nematic, Smectic & Cholesteric
Liquid Crystal Phases
Nematic, Smectic & Cholesteric
Anisotrpic substances may go through one or several Liquid Crystal Phases
Do not follow patterns, Some phases are combined and orientation is NOT the only way to characterize

23. Liquid Crystal Displays
Consists of an array of tiny segments (called pixels) that can be manipulated to present information.
Using polarization of lights to display objects.
Use only ambient light to illuminate the display.
Common wrist watch and pocket calculator to an advanced VGA computer screen
A typical nematic liquid crystal produces a degree shift in the polarization of the light passing through when there is no electric field present.
When a voltage is applied, an electric field is produced in the liquid, affecting the orientation of the molecules. This causes the polarization shift to be reduced.

24. Polarization

25. Polarization of light
When unpolarized light passes through a polarizing filter, only one plane of polarization is transmitted. Two polarizing filters used together transmit light differently depending on their relative orientation.
Online Offline

26. LCD WORKING PRINCIPAL

27. LCD WORKING

28. LCD WORKING
TFT Glass has as many TFTs as the number of pixels displayed.
A Color Filter Glass has color filter which generates color.
Diffuser distributing the light evenly across the viewing area
Liquid crystals move according to the difference in voltage between the Color Filter Glass and the TFT Glass.
The amount of light supplied by Back Light is determined by the amount of movement of the liquid crystals in such a way as to generate color.

29. LCD WORKING

30. LCD WORKING
With no voltage applied across the pixel, the LC molecules twist to align to the rubbing of the glass plates. Light entering the first polarizer is twisted and can exit the second polarizer --> pixel is ON
With a voltage applied across the pixel, the LC molecules untwist to align with the electric field. Light entering the first polarizer cannot exit the second polarizer --> pixel is OFF.

31. LCD WORKING

32. BACKLIGHT
REFLECTIVE

33. Reflective And Backlight Display
Liquid Crystal material emit no light of their own. For illumination of light - backlight and reflective method used.
Reflective- Use external light reflected by a reflector behind the display. Example: watch, calculator
This is achieved by combining a reflector with rear polarizer
Backlight- : light source is from a backlight, and viewed from the front. Example: Computer display
built in fluorescent tubes above ,besides and sometimes behind the LCD.

34. ACTIVE MATRIX DISPLAY
PASSIVE MATRIX DISPLAY
TYPES OF LCD

35. PASSIVE MATRIX DISPLAY
Uses a grid of vertical and horizontal conductors comprised of Indium Tin Oxide (ITO) to create an image
There is no switching device.
Pixels are addressed one at a time by row and column matrix
Only used in low-resolution displays (such as watch, calculator)
Slow response time, poor contrast

36. Passive Matrix Display Problems
Crosstalk occurs when neighboring pixel voltages affect each other, reducing the gray scale, contrast, and viewing angle.
Submarining occurs when slow-to-respond LC materials cannot respond quickly enough and the picture can disappear temporarily.
One Solution: placing a switch at each pixel, such as a transistor or diode --> pixel matrix becomes “active.”

37. Active Matrix Liquid Crystal Display
It is based on Thin Film Transistor (TFT) Technology
Switching element at each pixel. Individual pixels isolated from each other. Thin Film Transistors most commonly used.
Each row line is activated sequentially
Used in computer displays
A switching device and a storage capacitor are integrated at the each cross point of the electrodes

38. Many Passive Display Problems Eliminated
Pixel isolation eliminates crosstalk
Isolation from the column line permits the pixel capacitor to remain charged, so that faster responding liquid crystals can be used.
Due to switching action of transistors,only the desired pixel recieve a charge ,improving image quality over a passive matrix.

39. Advantage of Active Matrix Display
Higher sizes
Higher contrast
Higher gray scale
Higher resolution
Higher viewing angle
Faster response. Eliminates “ghosting”
Better control of the color

40. Color Display Each pixel has three sub-pixels: Red, Green and Blue.
Different intensities of the sub-pixels give perception of whole spectrum of colors.
If each red ,green and blue sub-pixel can display 256 different intensity of their respective color , then each pixel can produce a possible palette of 16.8 million (256*256*256) colors.

41. Advantage Of LCD Over CRT
Smaller size —LCDs occupy approximately 60 percent less space than CRT displays an important feature when office space is limited.
Lower power consumption—LCDs typically consume about half the power and emit much less heat than CRT displays.
Lighter weight —LCDs weigh approximately 70 percent less than CRT displays of comparable size.
No electromagnetic fields —LCDs do not emit electromagnetic fields and are not susceptible to them. Thus, they are suitable for use in areas where CRTs cannot be used.
Longer life —LCDs have a longer useful life than CRTs.

42. Applications A) Thin Film Transistor (TFT)
Constructed on a glass surface using a photolithographic process.
The source and gate are the control electrodes. The drain electrode connects to the liquid crystal pixel. The thin layer of amorphous silicon is the semiconducting material that allows the TFT to function. The capacitor is attached to the pixel electrode, but is not an integral part of the TFT.

43. B) Alpha-numeric display
Digital letters can be displayed by blocking the lights in different plates we place.
For applications such as digital watches and calculators, a mirror is used under the bottom polarizer. With no voltage applied, ambient light passes through the cell, reflects off the mirror, reverses its path, and re-emerges from the top of the cell, giving it a silvery appearance.
When the electric field is on, the aligned LC molecules do not affect the polarization of the light. The analyzer prevents the incident light from reaching the mirror and no light is reflected, causing the cell to be dark. When the electrodes are shaped in the form of segments of numbers and letters they can be turned on and off to form an alpha-numeric display.

44. C) Back lighting systems
Alpha-numeric displays are not very bright because the light must pass through multiple polarizers which severely cut down on the intensity of the light, in addition to the various layers of the display which are only semi-transparent.  Therefore a more intense source is employed in the form of a back lighting system.
For brighter displays
Light bulbs mounted behind
At the edges of the display replace the reflected ambient light.
Disadvantage : very power intensive.  Back lighting systems are used in more complex displays such as laptop computer screens, monitors, LCD projectors, pda, digital devices such as digital camera and DV.