1. Taxation: Evaluating Revenue Sources Lecture 5 September 27, 2005 PA 546 Constantine Hadjilambrinos

2. Taxation The only method to share burden of provision of public goods. The only method to share burden of provision of public goods. May also be used to share cost of common- pool and toll goods. May also be used to share cost of common- pool and toll goods. Only socially acceptable way to re-distribute wealth. Only socially acceptable way to re-distribute wealth. PA 546 Constantine Hadjilambrinos

3. Criteria for designing a good tax system Equity Economic efficiency Economic efficiency Collection costs (to collector & to society) Collection costs (to collector & to society) Revenue consequences Revenue consequences PA 546 Constantine Hadjilambrinos  The levying of taxes requires coercive authority  For this reason, government must be careful when it comes to designing and implementing tax systems.

4. Equity  Distribution according to benefits  Distribution according to ability to pay Distribution according to benefits is impractical for public goods. How is ability to pay defined/measured? Property Property Income Income Net wealth Net wealth PA 546 Constantine Hadjilambrinos

5. Horizontal equity: Everyone with the same ability to pay pays equal amount. Vertical equity: Concerns proper relationship between tax burdens of individuals with different capabilities to pay.  Redistribution issue  Regressive: People with greater ability to pay, pay proportionately less.  Proportional: People pay same proportion (of income, wealth, etc.)  Progressive: People with greater ability to pay, pay proportionately more. PA 546 Constantine Hadjilambrinos

6. Is there an economic justification for a progressive tax structure? Diminishing marginal utility argument: Low- income individuals value additional unit of income than high-income individuals. Diminishing marginal utility argument: Low- income individuals value additional unit of income more than high-income individuals. Progressive tax structure increases overall societal welfare. PA 546 Constantine Hadjilambrinos

7. Who really pays? (Tax incidence) Taxpayer may be able to shift some or all of the cost of a tax to someone else. Forward shift: Shift to consumers—increase prices. Forward shift: Shift to consumers—increase prices. Backward shift: Shift to suppliers—reduce prices paid to them. Backward shift: Shift to suppliers—reduce prices paid to them. Absorption: Absorb tax—lower return to owners. Absorption: Absorb tax—lower return to owners. Businesses respond so as to maximize after-tax returns to owners. PA 546 Constantine Hadjilambrinos

8. Table 7-5 Federal Tax Distribution and Effective Rates by Quintiles for All Families, 1980-1996 1980198519901995 Quintile Income Share Tax Share Eff. Tax Rate Income Share Tax Share Eff. Tax Rate Income Share Tax Share Eff. Tax Rate Income Share Tax Share Eff. Tax Rate Lowest4.51.68.13.81.810.43.71.48.93.40.75.0 Second10.36.915.69.46.915.99.26.415.89.05.614.9 Third15.513.219.814.71319.214.512.519.514.512.019.7 Fourth22.522.122.921.921.921.721.721.222.121.320.222.6 Highest47.556.127.650.756.224.151.458.225.552.161.428.1 Top 10% 31.739.128.735.039.224.436.141.626.036.945.329.2 Top 5% 21.427.429.724.527.524.425.729.826.226.533.630.2 Top 1% 9.412.831.911.813.324.512.814.926.313.418.432.7 Source: Gregg Esenwein, The Size and Distribution of the Federal Tax Burden: 1950- 1996, Report 96-386 (Washington, DC: Library of Congress, 1996) PA 546 Constantine Hadjilambrinos

9. Individual or Business Taxes?  All taxes are ultimately paid by individuals.  Business taxes may be justified in certain cases:  Business tax may be more effective and/or less costly to collect.  Business tax may be necessary to internalize externalities. Business taxes are often used instead of individual taxes for political reasons: “exporting” or hiding the tax. PA 546 Constantine Hadjilambrinos

10. Revenue Production Accounting relationship between taxes and revenue: R = t x B Economic relationship between taxes and revenue: R = t B(t) Economic relationship between taxes and revenue: R = t x B(t) R = Revenue t = Tax rate B = Tax base PA 546 Constantine Hadjilambrinos

12. Stability of tax system Cyclical stability of tax base Cyclical stability of tax base Tax diversification: 1. Personal income taxes 2. Property taxes 3. General sales or value added taxes 4. Excises 5. Corporate profit taxes Revenue (adequacy) stability Revenue (adequacy) stability Economic growth = growth in demand for services. Need revenue sources that also expand (or contract) with income. PA 546 Constantine Hadjilambrinos

13. Collectibility Resources used to collect taxes are costs. Efficiency requires minimization of costs. There is usually a trade-off between equity and collectibility. PA 546 Constantine Hadjilambrinos

14. Economic Effects 1. Work vs. leisure: High marginal rates may induce a preference for leisure. 2. Business operations: Taxes should not (generally) affect business practices. 3. Shopping and business location: Sales taxes and excises may affect shopping patterns and business location. 4. Personal financial management: People manage activities and finances to minimize tax burden. 5. Investment choices: Taxes may make less productive investments preferable. 6. Savings: Taxes may adversely affect decisions to save. PA 546 Constantine Hadjilambrinos

15. State & Local Taxes and Economic Development State and local governments worry that taxes may adversely impact economic development. Taxes have a relatively small effect on interregional location. Taxes have a relatively small effect on interregional location. Taxes have a much larger effect within a region. Taxes have a much larger effect within a region. PA 546 Constantine Hadjilambrinos

16. Transparency An effective tax system must be transparent Adoption: Taxes must be adopted by legitimate process. Adoption: Taxes must be adopted by legitimate process. Administration: Tax collection criteria must be objective, explicit, knowable, and fair. Administration: Tax collection criteria must be objective, explicit, knowable, and fair. Compliance requirements: How tax is to be calculated should be clear to everyone. Compliance requirements: How tax is to be calculated should be clear to everyone. Amount of payment: Taxpayers should know how much tax they are paying and to whom they are paying it. Amount of payment: Taxpayers should know how much tax they are paying and to whom they are paying it. PA 546 Constantine Hadjilambrinos

17. Taxation and Externalities An exception to standard of neutrality for tax efficiency is to address negative externalities Emission taxes: Taxes on polluting emissions. Emission taxes: Taxes on polluting emissions. Direct measurement of emissions necessary Direct measurement of emissions necessary Apply to last link—where emissions into environment take place Apply to last link—where emissions into environment take place Indirect taxes on goods and services: Taxes of products and services the production of which produces social costs (pollution, health costs, social services). Indirect taxes on goods and services: Taxes of products and services the production of which produces social costs (pollution, health costs, social services). PA 546 Constantine Hadjilambrinos