1. AGC DSP AGC DSP Professor A G Constantinides 1 Digital Filter Specifications Only the magnitude approximation problem Four basic types of ideal filters with magnitude responses as shown below (Piecewise flat)

2. AGC DSP AGC DSP Professor A G Constantinides 2 Digital Filter Specifications These filters are unealisable because (one of the following is sufficient) their impulse responses infinitely long non- causal Their amplitude responses cannot be equal to a constant over a band of frequencies Another perspective that provides some understanding can be obtained by looking at the ideal amplitude squared.

3. AGC DSP AGC DSP Professor A G Constantinides 3 Digital Filter Specifications Consider the ideal LP response squared (same as actual LP response)

4. AGC DSP AGC DSP Professor A G Constantinides 4 Digital Filter Specifications The realisable squared amplitude response transfer function (and its differential) is continuous in Such functions if IIR can be infinite at point but around that point cannot be zero. if FIR cannot be infinite anywhere. Hence previous defferential of ideal response is unrealisable

5. AGC DSP AGC DSP Professor A G Constantinides 5 Digital Filter Specifications A realisable response would effectively need to have an approximation of the delta functions in the differential This is a necessary condition

6. AGC DSP AGC DSP Professor A G Constantinides 6 Digital Filter Specifications For example the magnitude response of a digital lowpass filter may be given as indicated below

7. AGC DSP AGC DSP Professor A G Constantinides 7 Digital Filter Specifications In the passband we require that with a deviation In the stopband we require that with a deviation

8. AGC DSP AGC DSP Professor A G Constantinides 8 Digital Filter Specifications Filter specification parameters - passband edge frequency - stopband edge frequency - peak ripple value in the passband - peak ripple value in the stopband

9. AGC DSP AGC DSP Professor A G Constantinides 9 Digital Filter Specifications Practical specifications are often given in terms of loss function (in dB) Peak passband ripple dB Minimum stopband attenuation dB

10. AGC DSP AGC DSP Professor A G Constantinides 10 Digital Filter Specifications In practice, passband edge frequency and stopband edge frequency are specified in Hz For digital filter design, normalized bandedge frequencies need to be computed from specifications in Hz using

11. AGC DSP AGC DSP Professor A G Constantinides 11 Digital Filter Specifications Example - Let kHz, kHz, and kHz Then

12. AGC DSP AGC DSP Professor A G Constantinides 12 The transfer function H(z) meeting the specifications must be a causal transfer function For IIR real digital filter the transfer function is a real rational function of H(z) must be stable and of lowest order N or M for reduced computational complexity Selection of Filter Type

13. AGC DSP AGC DSP Professor A G Constantinides 13 Selection of Filter Type FIR real digital filter transfer function is a polynomial in (order N) with real coefficients For reduced computational complexity, degree N of H(z) must be as small as possible If a linear phase is desired then we must have: (More on this later)

14. AGC DSP AGC DSP Professor A G Constantinides 14 Selection of Filter Type Advantages in using an FIR filter - (1) Can be designed with exact linear phase (2) Filter structure always stable with quantised coefficients Disadvantages in using an FIR filter - Order of an FIR filter is considerably higher than that of an equivalent IIR filter meeting the same specifications; this leads to higher computational complexity for FIR

15. AGC DSP AGC DSP Professor A G Constantinides 15 FIR Design FIR Digital Filter Design Three commonly used approaches to FIR filter design - (1) Windowed Fourier series approach (2) Frequency sampling approach (3) Computer-based optimization methods

16. AGC DSP AGC DSP Professor A G Constantinides 16 Finite Impulse Response Filters The transfer function is given by The length of Impulse Response is N All poles are at. Zeros can be placed anywhere on the z- plane

17. AGC DSP AGC DSP Professor A G Constantinides 17 FIR: Linear phase For phase linearity the FIR transfer function must have zeros outside the unit circle

18. AGC DSP AGC DSP Professor A G Constantinides 18 FIR: Linear phase To develop expression for phase response set transfer function (order n) In factored form Where, is real & zeros occur in conjugates

19. AGC DSP AGC DSP Professor A G Constantinides 19 FIR: Linear phase Let where Thus

20. AGC DSP AGC DSP Professor A G Constantinides 20 FIR: Linear phase Expand in a Laurent Series convergent within the unit circle To do so modify the second sum as

21. AGC DSP AGC DSP Professor A G Constantinides 21 FIR: Linear phase So that Thus where

22. AGC DSP AGC DSP Professor A G Constantinides 22 FIR: Linear phase are the root moments of the minimum phase component are the inverse root moments of the maximum phase component Now on the unit circle we have and

23. AGC DSP AGC DSP Professor A G Constantinides 23 Fundamental Relationships hence (note Fourier form)

24. AGC DSP AGC DSP Professor A G Constantinides 24 FIR: Linear phase Thus for linear phase the second term in the fundamental phase relationship must be identically zero for all index values. Hence 1) the maximum phase factor has zeros which are the inverses of the those of the minimum phase factor 2) the phase response is linear with group delay (normalised) equal to the number of zeros outside the unit circle

25. AGC DSP AGC DSP Professor A G Constantinides 25 FIR: Linear phase It follows that zeros of linear phase FIR trasfer functions not on the circumference of the unit circle occur in the form

26. AGC DSP AGC DSP Professor A G Constantinides 26 FIR: Linear phase For Linear Phase t.f. (order N-1) so that for N even:

27. AGC DSP AGC DSP Professor A G Constantinides 27 FIR: Linear phase for N odd: I) On we have for N even, and +ve sign

28. AGC DSP AGC DSP Professor A G Constantinides 28 FIR: Linear phase II) While for –ve sign [Note: antisymmetric case adds rads to phase, with discontinuity at ] III) For N odd with +ve sign

29. AGC DSP AGC DSP Professor A G Constantinides 29 FIR: Linear phase IV) While with a –ve sign [Notice that for the antisymmetric case to have linear phase we require The phase discontinuity is as for N even]

30. AGC DSP AGC DSP Professor A G Constantinides 30 FIR: Linear phase The cases most commonly used in filter design are (I) and (III), for which the amplitude characteristic can be written as a polynomial in

31. AGC DSP AGC DSP Professor A G Constantinides 31 Design of FIR filters: Windows (i) Start with ideal infinite duration (ii) Truncate to finite length. (This produces unwanted ripples increasing in height near discontinuity.) (iii) Modify to Weight w(n) is the window

32. AGC DSP AGC DSP Professor A G Constantinides 32 Windows Commonly used windows Rectangular Bartlett Hann Hamming Blackman Kaiser

33. AGC DSP AGC DSP Professor A G Constantinides 33 Kaiser window βTransition width (Hz) Min. stop attn dB 2.121.5/N30 4.542.9/N50 6.764.3/N70 8.965.7/N90

34. AGC DSP AGC DSP Professor A G Constantinides 34 Example Lowpass filter of length 51 and

35. AGC DSP AGC DSP Professor A G Constantinides 35 Frequency Sampling Method In this approach we are given and need to find This is an interpolation problem and the solution is given in the DFT part of the course It has similar problems to the windowing approach

36. AGC DSP AGC DSP Professor A G Constantinides 36 Linear-Phase FIR Filter Design by Optimisation Amplitude response for all 4 types of linear-phase FIR filters can be expressed as where

37. AGC DSP AGC DSP Professor A G Constantinides 37 Linear-Phase FIR Filter Design by Optimisation Modified form of weighted error function where

38. AGC DSP AGC DSP Professor A G Constantinides 38 Linear-Phase FIR Filter Design by Optimisation Optimisation Problem - Determine which minimise the peak absolute value of over the specified frequency bands After has been determined, construct the original and hence h[n]

39. AGC DSP AGC DSP Professor A G Constantinides 39 Linear-Phase FIR Filter Design by Optimisation Solution is obtained via the Alternation Theorem The optimal solution has equiripple behaviour consistent with the total number of available parameters. Parks and McClellan used the Remez algorithm to develop a procedure for designing linear FIR digital filters.

40. AGC DSP AGC DSP Professor A G Constantinides 40 FIR Digital Filter Order Estimation Kaiser’s Formula: ie N is inversely proportional to transition band width and not on transition band location

41. AGC DSP AGC DSP Professor A G Constantinides 41 FIR Digital Filter Order Estimation Hermann-Rabiner-Chan’s Formula: where with

42. AGC DSP AGC DSP Professor A G Constantinides 42 FIR Digital Filter Order Estimation Formula valid for For, formula to be used is obtained by interchanging and Both formulae provide only an estimate of the required filter order N If specifications are not met, increase filter order until they are met

43. AGC DSP AGC DSP Professor A G Constantinides 43 FIR Digital Filter Order Estimation Fred Harris’ guide: where A is the attenuation in dB Then add about 10% to it