1. Leadership in Organizations
Chapter 10
Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior 2e Andrew J. DuBrin
PowerPoint Presentation by Charlie Cook

2. Learning Objectives Differentiate between leadership and management.
Describe key leadership traits, styles, and behaviors.
Explain the basics of four different contingency theories of leadership.
Present an overview of transformational and charismatic leadership.
Explain how 360-degree feedback is used to improve leadership effectiveness.
Identify gender differences in leadership style.
Identify forces that can sometimes decrease the importance of leadership.
A. J. DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior, Second Edition. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western.

3. The Nature of Leadership
Is defined as the ability inspire confidence and support among the people on whose competence and commitment performance depends.
Involves influencing others to achieve objectives important to them and the organization.
Contributes to organizational effectiveness through the use of desirable personal attributes to achieve good results.
Effective Leadership = Attributes x Results
A. J. DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior, Second Edition. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western.

4. Leaders versus Managers
Visionary
Passionate
Creative
Flexible
Inspiring
Innovative
Courageous
Imaginative
Experimental
Independent
Managers
Rational
Consulting
Persistent
Problem-solving
Tough-minded
Analytical
Structured
Deliberate
Authoritative
Stabilizing
A. J. DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior, Second Edition. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western.

5. Leadership Traits and Characteristics
Cognitive Skills
Mental abilities and knowledge
Problem-solving skills
Imagination, creativity, and a willingness to experiment
Technical and professional competence (knowledge of the business)
Personality Traits
Enthusiasm
Self-confidence
Trustworthiness
Emotional intelligence
Needs for power and achievement
A sense of humor
A. J. DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior, Second Edition. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western.

6. Leadership Styles and Behavior
Behavioral Approach to Leadership
Attempts to specify how the behaviors of effective leaders differ from less-effective leaders.
Based on the assumption that leaders are relatively consistent in how they attempt to influence group members.
Key concept is “leadership style”—the relatively consistent pattern of behavior that characterizes a leader.
Recognizes that some leaders modify their leadership style as the situation requires.
A. J. DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior, Second Edition. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western.

7. Pioneering Studies on Leadership Dimensions
Ohio State University
Initiating structure
The degree to which the leader establishes structure for group members: assigning task, specifying procedures, scheduling work, and clarifying expectations.
Consideration
The degree to which the leader creates an environment of emotional support, warmth, friendliness, and trust.
Research findings
Leaders high on initiating structure were rated highly and had higher-producing work groups.
High consideration in leaders is associated with low turnover and high job satisfaction.
A. J. DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior, Second Edition. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western.

8. Leadership Styles Based on a Combination of Initiating Structure and Consideration
Low
Initiating Structure
High
Low structure
and
high consideration
High structure
low consideration
EXHIBIT
10-2
A. J. DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior, Second Edition. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western.

9. Pioneering Studies on Leadership Dimensions
University of Michigan
Production-centered managers
Set tight work standards, organized tasks carefully, prescribed work methods, and supervised closely.
Employee-centered managers
Encouraged participative goal setting and decision-making, fostered high performance by engendering trust and mutual respect.
A. J. DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior, Second Edition. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western.

10. Pioneering Studies on Leadership Dimensions
University of Michigan
Findings
Employee-centered managers had the most productive work groups.
The most effective leaders had supportive relationships with employees, used group decision making, and encouraged employee goal setting.
A. J. DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior, Second Edition. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western.

11. Managing Polarities Peter Koestenbaum on Leadership
The central attribute of leadership is the ability to manage polarity— extremes of positions and interests.
A. J. DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior, Second Edition. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western.

12. The Leadership Grid The Leadership Grid©
Describes leadership style in term of concerns for production and people. These concerns reflect attitudes rather than actual behavior.
Concern for production includes results, bottom-line performance, profits, and mission.
Concern for people includes group members and coworkers.
Grid assumes that an opportunistic leader shifts to any Grid style to achieve personal gain and self-promotion.
Best style is team management — at 9,9 on the Grid (high concern for both production and people).
A. J. DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior, Second Edition. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western.

13. The Leadership Grid Figure*
Impoverished Management:
Exertion of minimum effort to get
required work done is appropriate to
sustain organization membership.
Country Club Management:
Thoughtful attention to the needs of
the people for satisfying relationships
leads to a comfortable, friendly
organization atmosphere and work
tempo.
Team Management:
Work accomplishment is from
committed people; interdependence
through a "common stake" in
organization purpose leads to
relationships of trust and respect.
Authority-Compliance Management:
Efficiency in operations results from
arranging conditions of work in such a
way that human elements interfere to a
minimum degree.
Middle of the Road Management:
Adequate organization performance is possible through
balancing the necessity to get work out while maintaining
morale of people at a satisfactory level.
9,1
1,9
1,1
9,9
5,5 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Low
High
Concern for Results
* Formerly the Managerial Grid by Robert R. Blake and Jane S. Mouton.
Source: Robert R. Blake and Anne Adams McCarse, Leadership Dukennas—Grid Solutions, Houston: Gulf Publishing Company, Grid figure: p. 29, Paternalism/ Materialism figure: p. 30, Opportunism figure: p. 31. Copyright © 1991 by Scientific Methods, Inc. Reproduced by permission of the owners. 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
EXHIBIT
10-3a
A. J. DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior, Second Edition. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western.

14. The Leadership Grid Figure*
9,1
1,9 9 +
9 + 9 Paternalism/Maternalism
Rewards and approval are bestowed to
people in return for loyalty and obedience;
failure to comply leads to punishment.
Opportunism
1,1 9, 1
5,5
9,9
In Opportunistic Management, people adapt and shift to any Grid
style needed to gain the maximum advantage. Performance occurs
according to a system of selfish gain. Effort is given only for an
advantage for personal gain.
*Formerly the Managerial Grid by Robert R. Blake and Jane S. Mouton.
EXHIBIT
10-3b
Source: Robert R. Blake and Anne Adams McCarse, Leadership Dukennas—Grid Solutions, Houston: Gulf Publishing Company, Grid figure: p. 29, Paternalism/Materialism figure: p. 30, Opportunism figure: p. 31. Copyright © 1991 by Scientific Methods, Inc. Reproduced by permission of the owners.
A. J. DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior, Second Edition. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western.

15. The Leader-Member Exchange Model
Leaders do not relate to each group member in the same manner.
Leaders develop unique working relationships with each group member.
In-groups are given additional rewards, responsibilities, and trust in exchange for their loyalty and performance.
Out-groups have a more formal (traditional) superior-subordinate relationship with the leader.
Research findings
In-group membership is beneficial to its members.
High-quality leader-member exchanges improve delegation.
Supervisors are not overly influenced by the exchanges.
A. J. DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior, Second Edition. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western.

16. Contingency Theories of Leadership
Fiedler’s Contingency Theory of Leadership
Assumes that the best style of leadership is determined by the situation in which the leader is working.
Uses the least-preferred coworker (LPC) scale to measure the leader’s style.
LPC is a measure of how a manager describes his or her relationship to a referent (least-preferred) coworker.
Positive LPC descriptions indicate relationship-oriented management styles.
Negative LPC descriptions indicate task-oriented management styles.
A. J. DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior, Second Edition. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western.

17. Contingency Theories of Leadership
Fiedler’s Contingency Theory of Leadership
Situational control
Is the degree to which the leader can control and influence the outcomes of group effort.
Measurements of situational control are based on:
Leader-member relations (good to bad)
Task structure (well to ill-defined)
Position power (leader’s ability to reward and control)
A. J. DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior, Second Edition. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western.

18. Summary of Findings from Fiedler’s Contingency Theory
Task-motivated and
socio-independent leaders
perform best when they
have the most control
(highly favorable).
Relationship-motivated
leaders perform best
when they have moderate
control (moderately
favorable).
Task-motivated leaders
have low control (highly
unfavorable).
a. Leader-member
relations are good.
b. Task is well structured.
c. Leader has high
position power.
A combination of
favorable and unfavorable
factors.
a. Leader-member relations
are poor.
b. Task is poorly structured.
c. Leader has low position
power.
AMOUNT OF SITUATIONAL CONTROL BY LEADER
High
Moderate
Low
EXHIBIT
10-4
A. J. DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior, Second Edition. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western.

19. Contingency Theories of Leadership
Fiedler’s Contingency Theory of Leadership
Research findings
Task-motivated style is best when the leader has very high or very low control of the situation.
Relationship-motivated style best in situation under moderate or intermediate control.
Socio-independent leaders function best when control is high.
A. J. DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior, Second Edition. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western.

20. Contingency Theories of Leadership
The Path-Goal Theory of Leadership
Specifies what a leader must do to achieve high morale and productivity in a given situation.
Focuses on helping employees find the right path to goal attainment.
Assumes that the leader will choose the right leadership style to match the contingencies of a particular situation.
Is based on expectancy theory in that its key propositions relate to motivation, satisfaction, and performance.
A. J. DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior, Second Edition. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western.

21. Contingency Theories of Leadership
The Path-Goal Theory of Leadership
Choices for adjusting leadership styles to meet situational contingency demands:
A. J. DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior, Second Edition. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western.

22. The Path-Goal Theory of Leadership
OUTCOMES
Productivity
Morale
Personal characteristics of group members
Demands of the Task
(Contingency factors)
Leadership Styles
Directive
Supportive
Participative
Achievement-oriented
EXHIBIT
10-5
A. J. DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior, Second Edition. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western.

23. Contingency Relationships in Path-Goal Leadership
Style
Situation in
which
Appropriate
Directive
Positively
affects
satisfaction
and
expectancies of
subordinates
working on
ambiguous
tasks.
Negatively
clearly
defined
Supportive
dissatisfy -
ing,
stressful, or
frustrating
Participative
who
are
ego-involved
with
nonrepetitive
Achievement-oriented
confidence
that
effort
will
lead to
effective
per
formance
EXHIBIT
10-6
A. J. DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior, Second Edition. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western.

24. Contingency Theories of Leadership
The Situational Leadership Model
Explains how a leader chooses a leadership style that is appropriate to the readiness of group members.
Readiness is defined as the extent to which a group member has the ability and willingness or confidence to accomplish a task.
As the readiness of group members increases, a leader should rely more on relationship-related leadership behaviors and less on task-related leadership behaviors.
A. J. DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior, Second Edition. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western.

25. The Situational Model of Leadership
Situational Leadership® is a registered trademark of the Center for Leadership Studies. Reprinted with the permission of the Center for Leadership Studies, Escondido, CA All rights reserved.
EXHIBIT
10-7
A. J. DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior, Second Edition. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western.

26. Contingency Theories of Leadership
The Normative Decision Model
Leadership is a decision-making process in which the leader examines the situation and chooses the most effective decision-making style for the situation.
Five styles of decision making:
A. J. DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior, Second Edition. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western.

27. Contingency Theories of Leadership
The matrix depicted in Exhibit 10-8
Is for time-driven group problems where a decision must be reached quickly.
The decision-making style chosen depends on the situational factors as specified in the matrix:
Decision significance to the success of the project.
Importance of commitment of team members to the project.
Leader’s expertise in relation to the problem.
Likelihood of commitment by team to your solo decision.
Group Support (team) for the organization’s objectives.
Team competence in working together to solve the problem.
A. J. DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior, Second Edition. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western.

28. Transformational and Charismatic Leadership
Transformational Leader
Helps organizations and people make positive changes in the way they conduct their activities.
Is closely linked to strategic leadership.
Is involved in sweeping positive changes.
Charisma
Is the ability to lead others based on personal charm, magnetism, inspiration, and emotion.
A. J. DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior, Second Edition. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western.

29. Transformational and Charismatic Leadership
Transformations:
Raising people’s level of consciousness.
Getting people to transcend their self-interests.
Focusing people on the quest for self-fulfillment.
Helping to develop a long-range perspective.
Helping people understand the need for change.
Investing managers with a sense of urgency.
Committing to greatness.
A. J. DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior, Second Edition. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western.

30. Dimension and Corresponding Behaviors of Transformational Leadership
EXHIBIT
10-9
A. J. DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior, Second Edition. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western.

31. Charismatic Leadership
Charisma is in the eyes of the beholder.
Key Characteristics of Charismatics:
They have vision.
They are masterful communicators.
They inspire trust.
They are energetic.
They manage their impressions.
A. J. DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior, Second Edition. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western.

32. 360-Degree Feedback for Improving Leadership Effectiveness
Is a formal evaluation system for use in improving leadership effectiveness.
Input is in the form of a 360-degree survey of people who work for and with the supervisor.
Self-ratings are compared to ratings of others. Differences in the two ratings indicate performance area opportunities for improvement.
A. J. DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior, Second Edition. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western.

33. Gender Differences in Leadership
A Continuing Controversy:
Do men and women have different leadership styles?
There is no clear answer.
Women use a more relationship-oriented style of leadership; that is, in general, they are more cooperative, participative, and empowering than men who tend toward a command-and-control, autocratic leadership style.
A. J. DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior, Second Edition. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western.

34. Leadership Substitutes and Followership
Substitutes for Leadership:
Group member characteristics
Highly capable persons or groups (followers) can function with less leadership.
Effective followers are self-managers, are committed, have competence and focus, and possess courage.
Task Characteristics
Highly standardized tasks that provide feedback and are intrinsically satisfying can substitute for leadership.
Organizational factors
Explicit plans with well-defined goals that are carried out by cohesive groups reduce the need for leadership.
A. J. DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior, Second Edition. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western.

35. Choosing an Appropriate Leadership Model
Carefully diagnose the situation.
Choose a leadership approach that best fits the situational deficiencies or opportunities.
Observe the people to be led; come to understand their interests, goals, and concerns.
Apply the chosen leadership approach.
A. J. DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior, Second Edition. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western.