1. Chapter 4 analyzing work and designing jobs
Fundamentals of human resource management 5th edition By R.A. Noe, J.R. Hollenbeck, B. Gerhart, and P.M. Wright
Chapter 4 analyzing work and designing jobs
Chapter 4, The Analysis and Design of Work, discusses the analysis and design of work and, in doing so, lays out some considerations that go into making informed decisions about how to create and link jobs. The chapter is divided into three sections, the first of which deals with “big picture” issues related to work-flow analysis and organizational structure. The remaining two sections deal with more specific, issues related to job analysis and job design. 1

2. Need to Know
Elements of work flow analysis and how work flow is related to an organization’s structure.
How to obtain information for a job analysis.
Elements and trends in job analysis and their significance in HRM.
Methods for designing a job so that it can be done efficiently and motivating.
How organizations apply ergonomics to design safe jobs and plan for mental demands of a job.
After reading and discussing this chapter, you need to know the elements of work flow analysis and the following definitions:
Work Flow Design, job and position as shown in next slide:
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3. Work Flow In Organizations
Work Flow Design
Process of analyzing tasks necessary for production of a product or service.
Position
Set of job duties performed by a particular person.
Job
Set of related duties.
Informed decisions about jobs take place in the context of the organization’s overall work flow. Work Flow Design - The process of analyzing the tasks necessary for the production of a product or service.
Job - A set of related duties.
Position - The set of duties (job) performed by a particular person. Basing these decisions on work flow design can lead to better results than the more traditional practice of looking at jobs individually.
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4. Figure 4.1: Developing a Work Flow Analysis
As shown in Figure 4.1, inputs fall into three categories: raw inputs (materials and information), equipment, and human resources (knowledge, skills, and abilities). Work flow analysis next considers the work processes used to generate the outputs identified. Work processes are the activities that a work unit’s members engage in to produce a given output. They are described in terms of operating procedures for every task performed by each employee at each stage of the process. Specifying the processes helps HRM professionals design efficient work systems by clarifying which tasks are necessary. Knowledge of work processes also can guide staffing changes when work is automated, outsourced, or restructured. Work flow analysis identifies the inputs required to carry out the work processes. Work flow takes place in the context of an organization’s structure. It requires the cooperation of individuals and groups. Ideally, the organization’s structure brings together the people who must collaborate to create the desired outputs efficiently.
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5. Work Flow Design and Organization’s Structure
Within an organization, units and individuals must cooperate to create outputs.
The organization’s structure brings together people who must collaborate to efficiently produce desired outputs.
Centralized
Decentralized
Functional
Product or Customer
Besides looking at the work flow of each process, it is important to see how the work fits within the context of the organization’s structure. The structure may do this in a way that is highly centralized (that is, with authority concentrated in a few people at the top of the organization) or decentralized (with authority spread among many people). The organization may group jobs according to functions (for example, welding, painting, packaging), or it may set up divisions to focus on products or customer groups.
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6. Firefighters work as a team.
They and their equipment are the inputs and the output is an extinguished fire and the rescue of people and pets.
In any organization or team, workers need to be cross- trained in several skills to create an effective team.
If these firefighters are trained to do any part of of the job, the chief can deploy them rapidly as needed.
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7. Job Analysis Job Analysis Job Descriptions Job Specifications
Process of getting detailed information about jobs.
To achieve high-quality performance, organizations have to understand and match job requirements and people. Analyzing jobs and understanding what is required to carry out a job provide essential knowledge for staffing, training, performance appraisal, and many other HR activities. Job Description - A list of the tasks, duties, and responsibilities (TDRs) that a particular job entails. Job analysis: the process of getting detailed information about jobs. Preparation of a job description begins with gathering information about the job from
people already performing the task, the position’s supervisor, or the managers creating the position. Based on that information, the writer of the job description identifies the essential duties of the job, including mental and physical tasks and any methods and resources required. The output of a job analysis are job descriptions and job specifications. whereas the job description focuses on the activities involved in carrying out a job, a job specification looks at the qualities or requirements the person performing the job must possess. It is a list of the knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteritics (KSAOs) that an individual must have to perform the job. Knowledge refers to factual or procedural information that is necessary for successfully performing a task.
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8. Job Descriptions
Job Description: a list of tasks, duties, and responsibilities (TDRs) that a particular job entails.
Key components:
Job Title
Brief description of the TDRs
List of the essential duties with detailed specifications of the tasks involved in carrying out each duty
Whenever the organization creates a new job, it needs to prepare a job description.
Job descriptions should be reviewed periodically:
Once per year
Performance appraisals are a good opportunity to review the job description. Preparation of a job description begins with gathering information about the job from people already performing the task, the position’s supervisor, or the managers creating the position. Based on that information, the writer of the job description identifies the essential duties of the job, including mental and physical tasks and any methods and resources required.
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9. Figure 4.2: Sample Job Description
A job description typically has the format shown in Figure 4.2. It includes:
Job title
Brief description of the TDRs
List of the essential duties with detailed specifications of the tasks involved in carrying out each duty
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10. Job Specifications
Job Specification: list of knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics (KSAO needed to perform a particular job).
Knowledge: factual or procedural information necessary for successfully performing a task.
Skill: an individual’s level of proficiency at performing a particular task.
Ability: a general enduring capability that an individual possesses.
Other Characteristics: job-related licensing, certifications, or personality traits.
Whereas the job description focuses on the activities involved in carrying out a job, a job specification looks at the qualities of the person performing the job. KSAOs are characteristics of people and are not directly observable. They are observable only when individuals are carrying out the TDRs of the job—and afterward, if they can show the product of their labor. Thus, if someone applied for a job as a news photographer, you could not simply look at the individual to determine whether he or she can spot and take effective photographs. However, you could draw conclusions later about the person’s skills by looking at examples of his or her photographs
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11. Figure 4.3: Sample Job Specifications
Figure 4.3 is a set of sample job specifications for the job description in Figure 4.2
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12. Sources of Job Information
The incumbents – people who currently hold the position in the organization.
Dictionary of Occupational Titles (DOT) – published by the U.S. Department of Labor
Occupational Information Network (O*NET) – an online job description database developed by the Labor Department
There are several sources of job information. The incumbents, or people who currently perform the job are a good source. This source should be supplemented by observations, when applicable, or supervisor input. Supervisors may have a clearer vision of what is expected from that job.
Two other sources are provided by the Department of Labor. The dictionary of occupational titles and the Occupational information network which is an online job description database.
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13. ManpowerGroup,, is a staffing services agency that uses O
ManpowerGroup,, is a staffing services agency that uses O*NET’s information on skills to match individuals more precisely to jobs it has been hired to fill. As an employment services company it uses O*Net to classify its jobs and track demand nationwide.,
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14. Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ)
What is it?
Key sections:
A standardized job analysis questionnaire containing 194 questions about work behaviors, work conditions, and job characteristics that apply to a wide variety of jobs.
Information input
Mental processes
Work output
Relationships with other persons
Job context
Other characteristics
After gathering information, the job analyst uses the information to analyze the job. One instruments for analyzing jobs is the Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ).- The person analyzing a job determines whether each item on the questionnaire applies to the job being analyzed, and then rates each item based on six scales. Using the PAQ provides an organization with information that helps in comparing jobs, even when they are dissimilar
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15. Fleishman Job Analysis System
What is it?
Categories of abilities:
Job analysis technique that asks subject-matter experts to evaluate a job in terms of the abilities required to perform the job.
Written comprehension
Deductive reasoning
Manual dexterity
Stamina
Originality
. To gather information about worker requirements, the Fleishman Job Analysis System asks subject-matter experts (typically job incumbents) to evaluate a job in terms of the abilities required to perform the job. When the survey has been completed in all 52 categories, the results provide a picture of the ability requirements of a job. Such information is especially useful for employee selection, training, and career development.
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16. Figure 4.4: Example of an Ability from Fleishman Job Analysis System
As in the example in Figure 4.4, the survey items are arranged into a scale for each ability. When the survey has been completed in all 52 categories, the results provide a picture of the ability requirements of a job. Such information is especially useful for employee selection, training, and career development.
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17. Importance of Job Analysis
Job analysis is so important to HR managers that it has been called the building block of all HRM functions.
Almost every HRM program requires some type of information determined by job analysis.
Work redesign
HR planning
Selection
Training
Performance appraisal
Career planning
Job evaluation
Job analysis is also important from a legal standpoint.
It helps determines essential job requirements and job-related duties as required by the EEO laws and regulations.
Job analysis also helps supervisors and other managers carry out their duties.
Identify types of work in their units
Information about work flow process
Information that supports hiring decisions, performance review, and compensation
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18. Table 4.1: competency model
Project Manager Competencies
Proficiency Ratings
Organizational & Planning Skills
Ability to establish priorities on projects and schedule activities to achieve results
1—Below Expectations
2—Meets Expectations
3—Exceeds Expectations
Communications
Ability to build credibility and trust through open and direct communications with internal and external customers.
Financial & Quantitative Skills
Ability to analyze financial information accurately and set financial goals that have a positive impact on company’s bottom line and fiscal objective
When HRM is actively engaged in talent management as a way to support strategy, organizations need to think beyond skills for particular jobs. They must identify the capabilities they need to acquire and develop in order to promote the organization’s success. For this purpose, organizations develop competency models. A competency model identifies and describes all the competencies required for success in a particular occupation or set of jobs. Organizations may create competency models for occupational groups, levels of the organization, or even the entire organization. A competency is an area of personal capability that enables employees to perform their work successfully. Table 4.1 shows an example of a competency model for a project manager. The left side of the table lists competencies required for a project manager (organizational & planning skills; communications; and financial & quantitative skills). The right side of the table shows behaviors that might be used to determine a project manager’s level of proficiency for each competency. As in these examples, competency models focus more on how people work, whereas job analysis focuses more on work tasks and outcomes. Competency models help HR professionals ensure that all aspects of talent management are aligned with the organization’s strategy.
As the chart illustrates,
Organizational & Planning Skills- proficiency ratings refer to
1—Below Expectations: Unable to perform basic tasks.
2—Meets Expectations: Understands basic principles and performs routine tasks with reliable results; works with minimal supervision or assistance.
3—Exceeds Expectations: Performs complex and multiple tasks; can coach, teach, or lead others.
Communications-
Financial & Quantitative Skills-
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19. Trends in Job Analysis
Organizations are being viewed as a field of work needing to be done, rather than as a set series of jobs held by individuals. “Dejobbing” – designing work by project rather than jobs.
Because the work can change rapidly and it is impossible to rewrite job descriptions every week, job descriptions and specifications need to be flexible. Research suggests that successful downsizing efforts almost always entail changes in the nature of jobs, not just their number. Jobs that have survived the downsizing of the most recent recession tend to have a broader scope of responsibilities coupled with less supervision. These changes in the nature of work and the expanded use of “project-based” organizational structures require the type of broader understanding that comes from an analysis of work flows. Because the work can change rapidly and it is impossible to rewrite job descriptions every week, job descriptions and specifications need to balance flexibility with the need for legal documentation.
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20. Job Design
Job Design: the process of defining how work will be performed and what tasks will be required in a given job.
Job Redesign: a similar process that involves changing an existing job design.
To design jobs effectively, a person must thoroughly understand:
job itself (through job analysis) and
its place in the units work flow (work flow analysis)
Although job analysis is important for an understanding of existing jobs, organizations must also plan for new jobs and periodically consider whether they should revise existing jobs.
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21. Figure 4.5: Approaches to Job Design
As shown in Figure 4.5, the available approaches to job design emphasize different aspects of the job:
The mechanics of doing a job efficiently.
The job’s impact on motivation.
The use of safe work practices.
The mental demands of the job.
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22. Designing Efficient Jobs
Industrial Engineering: study of jobs to find simplest way to structure work to maximize efficiency.
Reduces complexity of work.
Allows almost anyone to be trained quickly and easily perform the job.
Used for highly specialized and repetitive jobs.
If workers perform tasks as efficiently as possible, not only does the organization benefit from lower costs and greater output per worker, but workers should be less fatigued. Industrial engineering provides measurable and practical benefits. However, a focus on efficiency alone can create jobs that are so simple and repetitive that workers get bored. Industrial engineering is usually combined with other approaches to job design.
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23. Designing Jobs That Motivate: The Job Characteristics Model
Skill variety – extent to which a job requires a variety of skills to carry out tasks involved.
Task identity – degree to which a job requires completing a “whole” piece of work from beginning to end.
Task significance – extent to which the job has an important impact on lives of other people.
Employers also need to ensure that workers have a positive attitude toward their jobs so that they show up at work with enthusiasm, commitment, and creativity. A model that shows how to make jobs more motivating is the Job Characteristics Model, developed by Richard Hackman and Greg Oldham. This model describes jobs in terms of five characteristics:
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24. Designing Jobs that Motivate: Job Characteristics Model
Autonomy – degree to which the job allows an individual to make decisions about the way work will be carried out.
Feedback - extent to which a person receives clear information about performance effectiveness from the work itself.
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25. Figure 4.6: Characteristics of a Motivating Job
As shown in Figure 4.6, the more of each of these characteristics a job has, the more motivating the job will be, according to the Job Characteristics Model. Applications of the job characteristics approach to job design include job enlargement,
job en
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26. Designing Jobs That Motivate Job Enlargement
Job Enlargement - Broadening types of tasks performed in a job.
Job Extension - Enlarging jobs by combining several relatively simple jobs to form a job with a wider range of tasks.
Job Rotation - Enlarging jobs by moving employees among several different jobs.
In a job design, job enlargement refers to a broadening of the types of tasks performed.
The objective of job enlargement is to make jobs less repetitive and more interesting.
Methods of job enlargement include:
Job extension
Job rotation
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27. Designing Jobs That Motivate
Job Enrichment
Self-Managing Work Teams
Empowering workers by adding more decision-making authority to jobs.
Based on Herzberg’s theory of motivation.
Individuals motivated more by intrinsic aspects of work.
Have authority for an entire work process or segment
Team members motivated by autonomy, skill variety, and task identity.
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28. Test Your Knowledge
Adding more tasks to an existing job is called ____________, while adding more decision- making authority to jobs is called _________.
Job extension; job rotation
Job rotation; job enrichment
Job enlargement; job enrichment
Job enlargement; job rotation
Adding more tasks to an existing job is called ____________, while adding more decision-making authority to jobs is called _________.
Job extension; job rotation
Job rotation; job enrichment
Job enlargement; job enrichment
Job enlargement; job rotation
Answer: C
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29. Designing Jobs That Motivate Flexible Work Schedules
Flextime
Job Sharing
A scheduling policy in which full-time employees may choose starting and ending times within guidelines specified by the organization.
A work schedule that allows time for community and family interests can be extremely motivating.
A work option in which two part-time employees carry out the tasks associated with a single job.
Enables an organization to attract or retain valued employees who want more time to attend school or take care of family matters.
One way in which an organization can give employees some say in how their work is structured is to offer flexible work schedules. Two approaches include flextime and job sharing
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30. Figure 4.7: Alternatives to 8-to-5 Job
Figure 4.7 illustrates alternatives to the traditional 40-hour workweek. Flextime- A scheduling policy in which full-time employees may choose starting and ending times within guidelines specified by the organization. A flextime policy also may enable workers to adjust a particular day’s hours in order to make time for doctor’s appointments, children’s activities, hobbies, or vol- unteer work. A work schedule that allows time for community and family interests can be extremely motivating for some employees.
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31. Designing Jobs That Motivate Telework
Telework – the broad term for doing one’s work away from a centrally located office.
Advantages to employers include:
less need for office space
greater flexibility to employees with special needs
Easiest to implement for managerial, professional, or sales jobs.
Difficult to set up for manufacturing workers.
Flexibility can extend to work locations as well as work schedules. For employers, advantages of telework include less need for office space and the abil- ity to offer greater flexibility to employees who are disabled or need to be available for children or elderly relatives. The employees using telework arrangements may have less absences from work than employees with similar demands who must commute to work. Telecommuting can also support a strategy of corporate social responsibility because these employees do not produce the greenhouse gas emissions that result from com- muting by car.
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32. Designing Ergonomic Jobs
Ergonomics – study of interface between individuals’ physiology and characteristics of physical work environment.
Goal is to minimize physical strain on the worker by structuring physical work environment around the way the human body works.
Redesigning work to make it more worker- friendly can lead to increased efficiencies.
The way people use their bodies when they work affects their physical well-being and may affect how long they can work. The goal of ergonomics is to minimize physical strain on the worker by structuring the physical work environment around the way the human body works. Ergonomic design may involve modifying equipment to reduce the physical demands of per- forming certain jobs or redesigning the jobs them- selves to reduce strain. Ergonomic design may target work practices associated with injuries
A recent ergonomic challenge comes from the popularity of mobile devices. As workers
find more and more uses for these devices, they are at risk from repetitive-stress injuries (RSIs). Heavy users of these devices must therefore trade off eyestrain against physical strain to wrists, unless they can hook up their device to an extra, properly positioned keyboard or monitor. When using mobile devices or any computer, workers can protect themselves by taking frequent breaks and paying attention to their posture while they work.
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33. Although employers in all industries are supposed to protect workers under the OSHA “general duty” clause, nursing homes, grocery stores, and poultry- processing plants are the only three industries for which OSHA has published ergonomic standards.
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34. Designing Jobs That Meet Mental Capabilities and Limitations
Work is designed to reduce information- processing requirements of the job.
Workers may be less likely to make mistakes or have accidents.
Simpler jobs may be less motivating.
Technology tools may be distracting employees from their primary task resulting in increased mistakes and accidents.
Just as the human body has capabilities and limitations, addressed by ergonomics, the mind, too, has capabilities and limitations. Employers may seek to reduce mental as well as physical strain. The job design may limit the amount of information and memorization involved. Adequate lighting, easy-to-read gauges and displays, simple-to-operate equipment, and clear instructions also can minimize mental strain. Computer soft- ware can simplify jobs—for example, by performing calculations or filtering out spam from important . Finally, organizations can select employees with the necessary abilities to handle a job’s mental demands.
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35. Ways to Simplify a Job’s Mental Demands
Limit amount of information and memorization that the job requires.
Organizations can provide:
adequate lighting
easy-to-read gauges and displays
simple-to-operate equipment
clear instructions
Every job requires some degree of thinking, remembering, and paying attention, so for every job, organizations need to evaluate whether their employees can handle the job’s mental demands.
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36. Summary Work flow analysis identifies:
amount and quality of a work unit’s outputs
work processes required to produce these outputs
inputs used to carry out processes and produce outputs
Within an organization, units and individuals must cooperate to create outputs, and organization’s structure brings people together for this purpose.
Job analysis is the process of getting detailed information about jobs.
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37. Summary Job analysis includes preparation of
Job descriptions
Job specifications
Information for analyzing an existing job often comes from incumbents and their supervisors.
The U.S. Department of Labor provides information:
Dictionary of Occupational Titles
Occupational Information Network (O*NET)
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38. Summary The nature of work and job design is changing.
Viewing organizations in terms of a field of work needing to be done instead of specific job descriptions
Organizations are adopting project-based structures and teamwork, which also require flexibility and ability to handle broad responsibilities.
The basic technique for designing efficient jobs is industrial engineering.
The basic technique for designing efficient jobs is industrial engineering, which looks for the simplest way to structure work to maximize efficiency. Through methods such as time-and-motion studies, the industrial engineer creates jobs that are relatively simple and typically repetitive. These jobs may bore workers because they are so simple.
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39. Summary
According to the Job Characteristics Model, jobs are more motivating if they have greater skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback.
Ways to create such jobs include:
Job Enlargement
Job Rotation
Job Enrichment
Self-managing work teams offer greater skill variety and task identity
Flexible work schedules and telework offer greater autonomy
According to the Job Characteristics Model, jobs are more motivating if they have greater skill vari- ety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback about performance effectiveness. Ways to create such jobs include job enlargement (through job extension or job rotation) and job enrichment. In addition, self-managing work teams offer greater skill variety and task identity. Flexible work schedules and telework offer greater autonomy.
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40. Summary
Goal of ergonomics is to minimize physical strain on the worker by structuring the physical work environment around the way the human body works
Employers may seek to reduce the mental as well as physical strain and reduce errors and accidents.
Job design may limit amount of information and memorization involved.
Technology tools may actually cause more distractions, errors, and accidents.
Ergonomic design may involve modifying equipment to reduce the physical demands of per- forming certain jobs or redesigning the jobs them- selves to reduce strain. Ergonomic design may target work practices associated with injuries. Adequate lighting, easy-to-read gauges and displays, simple-to-operate equipment, and clear instructions also can minimize mental strain.
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