1. Theoretical Perspective of Human Development Mid twentieth century theories (Continues……..)

2.  Behaviorism  Social Learning

3. Key Players: 1. Thorndike – Connectionism 2. Pavlov (and Watson) – Classical Conditioning 3. Skinner – Operant Conditioning 4. Bandura – Observable Learning and Modeling

4.  The behavioral perspective suggests that the keys to understanding development are observable behavior and outside stimuli in the environment.  If we know the stimuli, we can predict the behaviour.  Behavioral theories reject the notion that individuals universally pass through a series of stages.  Instead, people are assumed to be affected by the environmental stimuli to which they happen to be exposed.  Developmental patterns, then, are personal, reflecting a particular set of environmental stimuli, and development is the result of continuing exposure to specific factors in the environment.

5. Behaviorism is:  A theory of learning based upon the idea that all behavior are acquired through conditioning that occurs through interaction with the environment. According to behaviorism:  Behavior can be studied in a systematic and observable manner with no consideration of internal mental states.

6.  Traditional Behaviorism (John Watson)  Classical Conditioning (Ivan Pavlov)  Operant Conditioning (B. F. Skinner)  Law of Effect (Thorndike)

7. “Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I'll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select... regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations and race of his ancestors.”

8.  Born in Greenville, South Carolina  He was originally involved in animal research, but later became involved in the study of human behavior.  Watson believed that human are born with a few reflexes and the emotional reactions of love and rage.  All other behavior is established through stimulus –response association through conditioning  Stimulus elicits a response  Stimulus: any object in the general environment or any change in the tissues themselves due to the physiological condition of the animal  Response: anything the animal does  Linked stimulus-response association to conditioning like Pavlov did.  Published ‘Psychology from the Standpoint of Behaviorism ‘ in 1919.

9.  ‘Behaviorism is a purely objective experimental branch of natural science. Its theoretical goal is the prediction and control of behavior.” (Watson, 1913)  Watson argued that children’s behavior arises largely from the reward and punishments that follow particular behavior.  He agreed with Pavlov’s idea.  He viewed learning as conditioning and rejected introspection and all ‘mentalistic’ concepts of psychology.

10.  Watson demonstrated classical conditioning in an experiment involving a young child (Albert and a white cat)

11.  Originally, Albert was unafraid of the rat; but Watson created a sudden loud noise whenever Albert touched the rat.  Because Albert was frightened by the loud noise, he soon became conditioned to fear and avoid the rat.  The fear was generalized to other small animals.  Watson then ‘extinguished’ the fear by presenting the rat without the loud noise.

12. Classical conditioning was the first type of learning to be discovered and studied within the behaviorist tradition. The major theorist in the development of classical conditioning is Ivan Pavlov, a Russian scientist trained in biology and medicine.

13.  Pavlov was studying the digestive system of dogs and became intrigued with his observation that dogs deprived of food began to salivate when one of his assistants walked into the room.  He began to investigate this phenomena and established the law of classical conditioning.  Skinner renamed this type of learning ‘respondent conditioning’ since in this type of learning, one is responding too an environmental antecedent.

15.  Behaviors that are classically conditioned are those which involve the learning of involuntary (reflexive) responses over which the learner has no control and to which he or she responds reflexively or ‘automatically’ -Example includes, a dog salivating at the sound of the dinner bell, someone becoming nauseous at the sight of ‘creamy- looking food when mayonnaise once made them ill.

16.  Unconditional Stimulus (UCS) – A stimulus that elicits a response without conditioning  Unconditional Response (UCR) – Automatic response elicited by the unconditioned stimulus.  Conditioned Stimulus (CS) – A neutral stimulus that when paired with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) elicits a similar responses.  Conditioned Response (CR) – A response that is learned by pairing the originally neutral conditioned stimulus (CS) with the unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)  Neutral Stimulus (NS) – It does not elicit the Unconditioned (or reflexive) Response (UCR).

18. The neutral / orienting stimulus (NS) is repeatedly paired with the unconditional / natural stimulus (US).

20.  The neutral stimulus (NS) is transformed into a conditioned stimulus (CS).  That is, when the CS is presented by itself, it elicits or causes the CR (which is the same as involuntary response UR).  The name changed because it is elicited by a different stimulus (written as CS elicits >CR).

22. Unconditioned StimulusUnconditioned Response

23. Unconditioned Stimulus Unconditioned Response Neutral Stimulus

24. Conditioned Stimulus Conditioned Response

26. Remember: these are involuntary, reflexive (physiological response, emotions etc.)  Phobias  Taste aversions –Maple off ice cream (bernstein)  The “Christmas Spirit” feeling  Public speaking  What happens when you smell good food?

27.  Acquisition -The acquisition phase is the consistent pairing of the CS (bell ) and the UCS (food) that produces a CR (saliva)  Extinction -The extinction phase is when the conditioned response no longer occurs after repeated pairings without the unconditioned stimulus. -The dog’s response to the bell can be extinguished by repeatedly presenting the bell (CS) without the food (UCS).

28.  Generalization -Occurs when there is a small difference in the presented stimulus and the original conditioned stimulus. If Pavlov’s dog heard a bell of a similar tone, the dog would still salivate.  Discrimination -The opposite of generalization, discrimination happens when a conditioned response does not occur when there is a difference between the presented stimulus and the original conditioned stimulus. -If Pavlov’s dog heard a bell with a different tone and was not awarded the unconditioned stimulus (food), the dog would not to salivated to the second tone.

29.  In the area of classroom learning, classical conditioning is seen primarily in the conditioning of emotional behavior.  Things that make us happy, sad, angry etc. become associated with neutral stimuli that gain our attention. -For example: the school, classroom, teacher, or subject matter are initially neutral stimuli that gain attention.  Activities at school or in the classroom automatically elicit emotional responses and these activities are associated with the neutral or orienting stimulus.

30.  After repeated presentations, the previously neutral stimulus will elicit the emotional response. Example: -Child is harassed at school -Child feels bad when harassed -Child associate being harassed and school -Child begins to feel bad when she thinks of school -In order to extinguish the associated of feeling bad and thinking of school, the connection between school and being harssed must be broken.

31. Operant Conditioning B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) “All we need to know in order to describe and explain behavior is this: actions followed by good outcomes are likely to recur, and actions followed by bad outcomes are less likely to recur.” (Skinner, 1953)

32. Environmental consequences shape behavior

33.  B.F. Skinner was born in Susquehanna, a small railroad town in the hills of Pennsylvania.  After attending Hamilton college, Skinner decided to become a writer (Majored in English)  Moving back home he wrote a book entitled ‘Dark year’.  Moved to New year city for few months working as a bookstore clerk.  There, he came across with books by Pavlov and Watson, which he found impressive and exciting, and wanted to learn more.

34.  In 1928, at the age of 24, Skinner was enrolled in the Psychology Department of Harvard University.  In 1931 he earned Ph.D. from Harvard  Invented ‘Skinner Box”  Skinner was a dedicated researcher; died on August 18, 1990 from leukemia.  The main principles of operant conditioning, as defined by Skinner are: reinforcement, punishment, shaping, extinction, discrimination, and generalization.

37. Operant Conditioning Pigeon (in a Skinner box) Exploring Scratching Key-pecking Grooming Defecating Urinating Reinforcement (food pellet)

38.  Operant Conditioning is the study of the impact of consequences on behavior.  With operant conditioning we are dealing with voluntary behavior.  A B C (Antecedent Behavior Consequence)  Antecedent – stimulus that “cues” certain responses  Behavior – the action  Consequence – the payoff  Reinforcement=behavior increases  Punishment=behavior decreases  Remember: voluntary behavior

39. Reward/ Reinforcement Punishment

40.  A reinforcement is an event that increases the probability that a response will be repeated.  A punishment is an event that decreases the probability of a response

41.  A reinforcement can be either the presentation of a desirable item such as money or food, or the removal of an unpleasant stimulus, such as verbal nagging or physical pain.  A punishment can be the removal of a desirable condition such as driving privileges or the presentation of an unpleasant condition such as physical pain.  All things being equal, most people will respond better to both immediate reinforcement and immediate punishment.

42.  Most punishments in American society are given for behaviors that are immediately reinforcing, while the threat of the punishments for these deeds is delayed and uncertain.  Punishment tends to be ineffective except for temporarily suppressing undesirable behavior.  Mild, logical and consistent punishment can be informative and helpful.

44.  POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT = increasing a behavior by administering a reward  NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT = increasing a behavior by removing an aversive stimulus when a behavior occurs  PUNISHMENT = decreasing a behavior by administering an aversive stimulus following a behavior OR by removing a positive stimulus  EXTINCTION = decreasing a behavior by not rewarding it

45.  The process in which a behavior is strengthened, and thus, more likely to happen again.  Positive reinforcer: “Rewards” or something desirable is received after a behavior occurs -Positive Reinforcement : Making a behavior stronger by following the behavior with a pleasant stimulus. For example:  A rat presses a lever and receives food.  The dog gets attention from his people when he barks.  The child gets ice-cream for begging incessantly.  The toddler gets picked up and comforted for screaming

46. Negative Reinforcement  Making a behavior stronger by taking away a negative stimulus.  Negative reinforcer: “Escapes” or something undesirable is avoided after a behavior occurs. For Example:  A rat presses a lever and turns off the electric shock  We put on boots to prevent sitting in class with wet socks on.

47.  Reinforcers can be: -Primary (food, water etc.) which is innately rewarding; no learning necessary. -Secondary (money, good grades, and words of praise, etc) which is a consequence that is learned by pairing with a primary reinforcer.  Reinforcement can be continuous or intermitted (whenever required).

48.  An undesirable stimulus received after a behavior occurs.  Any stimulus presented immediately after a behavior in order to decrease the future probability of that behavior.  The process in which a behavior is weakened and thus, less likely to happen again. For example: - If your kid runs into the middle of the street and you flip out and ‘express to him how bad he is’, this (at least in psychological terms) is only considered to be punishment if it does in fact lead to a decrease in that child’s behavior of running into the street.

49. Punishment does not teach appropriate behaviors Must be delivered immediately & consistently May result in negative side effects Undesirable behaviors may be learned through modeling (aggression) May create negative emotions (anxiety & fear)

50. Negative PunishmentPositive Punishment Reducing a behavior by removing a pleasant stimulus when behavior occurs. Reducing a behavior by presenting an unpleasant stimulus when the behavior occurs. - If the rat was previously given food for each lever press, but now receive food constantly when not pressing the lever (and not when it presses the lever), the rat will learn to stop pressing the lever. - If the rat previously pressed the lever and received food and now receive a shock, the rat will learn not to press the lever.

51. ReinforcementPunishment PositiveChocolate BarElectric Shock NegativeExcused from ChoresNo TV privileges

52.  Technique of reinforcement used to teach new behaviors. At the beginning, people/animals are reinforced for easy tasks, and then increasingly need to perform more difficult tasks in order to receive reinforcement. - For example: originally the rat is given food pellet for one lever press, but we gradually increase the number of times it needs to press to receive food, the rat will increase the number of presses.

53. Common concepts  Generalization  A behavior may be performed in more than one situation  you do the same behavior in different situations because it pays off in both situations. raise hand before speaking in class, raise hand before speaking in meeting  discrimination  A behavior will be rewarded in one situation, but not in another situation  you do different behaviors even though the situation is similar because what pays off in one situation doesn’t pay off in the other. lower voice at a theater, raise at basketball arena.

54.  Extinction  The elimination of the behavior by stopping reinforcement of the behavior  Behavior disappears because it isn’t reinforced baby no longer cries when put to bed “cry to sleep” A parent takes away allowance for breaking curfew. A teacher ignores a talking student until he raises his hand.

55.  Child throws tantrum in toy store but not at home.  A person plugs a meter on time to avoid getting a ticket.  Feeling happy your friend send an e‐mail letter, but annoyed when he a forwards spam (junk mail).  A teacher grades similar essays from two students differently.  An ice cream dispenser has a red button and a green button. Which button will you push to fill your cone?

58. Thorndike’s Laws of Learning

60. Some of Thorndike’s actual cat puzzle boxes

61.  Born in 1874  BA from Wesleyan University  Graduate work with Wm. James at Harvard  PhD at Columbia;.Animal Intelligence.  Teachers College (Columbia University)  Career in education & mental testing in Teachers’ College (Columbia University)  Died in 1949

62. Father of modern educational psychology & founder of behavioral psychology  Started his research with animals using stimulus- response (classic conditioning) and developed the idea of Connectionism.  1928-Thordike conducted his first major study with adults. Connectionism  Defined learning as a connection or association of an increasing number of habits. (More complicated associations means higher levels of understanding.)  Three Laws of Learning

63. Stimulus Response

64.  Thorndike’s laws were based on the stimulus – response hypothesis. He believed that learning occurs when you recognize that one event predicts another.  He did research in animal behavior (Most of his work was done with cats) before becoming interested in human psychology.  His theory ‘ Connectionism’ stated that learning was the formation of a connection between stimulus and response.

65.  Law of Exercise  Law of Readiness  Law of Effect In order to make strengthening of the S-R bond more effective. Thorndike suggested three laws:

66. Law of Exercise  The performer must practice the task regularly in favourable conditions.  strength of association increases when connection is made between situation and response  Justifies drill, repetition and review.  Seen today in behavior modification and basic skill instruction  Law of Use - S-R (Stimulus, Response) connection (and the skills they underlie are strengthened by use. When more S-R bond is practiced, the stronger it will become.  Law of Disuse - S-R connections and the skills they underlie are weakened by disuse ( If you do not give chocolate repeatedly for doing something, the bond will disconnect

67. Law of Readiness  performer is physically and mentally able to complete the task, for example, the performer has the appropriate motivation.  Ready to conduct=satisfying - If the learner is ready  Not performing the activity = annoying  Not ready to conduct=annoying

68. The Law of Effect “Of several responses made to the same situation, those which are accompanied or closely followed by satisfaction to the animal will, other things being equal, be more firmly connected with the situation, so that, when it recurs, they will be more likely to recur; those which are accompanied or closely followed by discomfort to the animal will, other things being equal, have their connections with that situation weakened, so that, when it recurs, they will be less likely to occur. The greater the satisfaction or discomfort, the greater the strengthening or weakening of the bond. “ Thorndike (1914)

69. Law of Effect / Connectionism  Performer is more likely to repeat the task if their behaviour is followed by experiences of satisfaction, for example positive reinforcement.  Strength of association increased when connection between situation and response accompanied by a satisfying state.  When a connection between a stimulus and response is positively rewarded it will be strengthened and when it is negatively rewarded it will be weakened.  Thorndike later revised this ‘law’ when he found that negative reward (punishment) did not necessarily weakened bonds, and that some seemingly pleasurable consequences do not necessarily motivate performance.

70.  In 1911, Harvard graduate student Edward Thorndike developed a simple, behaviorist explanation of learning.  He used a learning curve, a graph of the changes in behavior that occur over successive trials of a learning experiment, to record how quickly cats learned to escape from a puzzle box (a type of maze.)

71. Each of Thorndike’s puzzle boxes had a device that could open it. Here tilting the pole will open the door. (Based on Thorndike, 1911/1970)

72. Trial and error or insight? As the data from one of Thorndike’s experiments show, the time that a cat needs to escape from a puzzle box gradually grows shorter, but in an irregular manner. Thorndike concluded that the cat did not at any point “suddenly get the idea.” Instead, reinforcement gradually increased the probability of the successful behavior.

73.  The curve of learning for the cats indicated a slow, gradual and consistent progress towards the solution.  He noted that cats would learn to escape from puzzle boxes more quickly if the response selected produced an immediate escape.  The cats would try a repertoire of behaviors to open the box, and gradually learn to more quickly select the one that produced escape  But overall, it appeared to Thorndike that the cats were not “understanding” the connections between the solution and the escape. There was no sudden increase in the learning curve to support that assumption.

74. 1. Learning caused by consequences or effects.  Law of Effect  Satisfying. effects increase S-R bond strength  Annoying. effects decrease S-R bond strength 2. Learning caused by practice (or lack of it)  Law of Exercise  Law of Use: sheer practice increases S-R strength  Law of Disuse: lack of practice decreases S-R strength 3. Learning caused by S-R contiguity  Law of Associative Shifting

75.  Thorndike dropped Law of Exercise and the Negative Law of Effect.  According to him, repetition or practice (without feedback) did not increase the strength of the most frequent response (e.g., drawing a line of a given length), as Law of Exercise (Use) requires.  For Thorndike, then, mere practice does not make perfect. (but Watson and others disagreed)

76. Law of Exercise  Rote Memory  Repetition, repetition, repetition Law of Effect  Correct response = reward  Incorrect response = punishment

77. Exercise for you  Apply Thorndike’s laws to a practical situation you have experienced and evaluate their effectiveness.