1. McGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2013 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. CHAPTER 4 “Order is not pressure which is imposed on society from without, but an equilibrium which is set up from within.” -Jose Ortega y Gasset

2. 4-2 Introduction Labor market equilibrium coordinates the desires of firms and workers, determining the wage and employment observed in the labor market. Market types: o Monopsony: one buyer of labor o Monopoly: one seller of labor These market structures generate unique labor market equilibria.

3. 4-3 Equilibrium in a Single Competitive Labor Market Competitive equilibrium occurs when supply equals demand, generating a competitive wage and employment level. It is unlikely that the labor market is ever in an equilibrium, since supply and demand are dynamic. The model suggests that the market is always moving toward equilibrium.

4. 4-4 Efficiency Pareto efficiency exists when all possible gains from trade have been exhausted. When the state of the world is (Pareto) Efficient, to improve one person’s welfare necessarily requires decreasing another person’s welfare. In policy applications, ask whether a change can make any one better off without harming anyone else. If the answer is yes, then the proposed change is said to be “Pareto-improving”.

5. 4-5 Equilibrium in a Competitive Labor Market SD0SD0 w*w* P Q E*E* EHEH ELEL Dollars Employment The labor market is in equilibrium when supply equals demand; E* workers are employed at a wage of w*. In equilibrium, all persons who are looking for work at the going wage can find a job. The triangle P gives the producer surplus; the triangle Q gives the worker surplus. A competitive market maximizes the gains from trade, or the sum P + Q.

6. 4-6 Competitive Equilibrium Across Labor Markets If workers were mobile and entry and exit of workers to the labor market was free, then there would be a single wage paid to all workers. The allocation of workers to firms equating the wage to the value of marginal product is also the allocation that maximizes national income (this is known as allocative efficiency). The “invisible hand” process: self-interested workers and firms accomplish a social goal that no one had in mind, i.e., allocative efficiency.

7. 4-7 Efficiency Revisited The “single wage” property of a competitive equilibrium has important implications for economic efficiency. o Recall that in a competitive equilibrium the wage equals the value of marginal product of labor. As firms and workers move to the region that provides the best opportunities, they eliminate regional wage differentials. Therefore, workers of given skills have the same value of marginal product of labor in all markets. The allocation of workers to firms that equates the value of marginal product across markets is also the sorting that leads to an efficient allocation of labor resources.

8. 4-8 Wages and International Trade: NAFTA NAFTA created a free trade zone in North America. Free trade reduces the income differential between the United States and other countries in the zone, such as Mexico. Total income of the countries in the trade zone is maximized as a result of equalized economic opportunities across the countries in the zone.

9. 4-9 Competitive Equilibrium in Two Labor Markets Linked by Migration Suppose the wage in the northern region (w N ) exceeds the wage in the southern region (w S ). Southern workers want to move North, shifting the southern supply curve to the left and the northern supply curve to the right. In the end, wages are equated across regions at w*. S Dollars Employment S w*w* wSwS DSDS (b) The Southern Labor Market Dollars Employment SNSN wNwN w*w* DNDN (a) The Northern Labor Market s A B C

10. 4-10 Wage Convergence Across States Source: Olivier Jean Blanchard and Lawrence F. Katz, “Regional Evolutions,” Brookings Papers on Economic Activity 1 (1992): 1-61.

11. 4-11 Payroll Taxes and Subsidies Payroll taxes assessed on employers lead to a downward, parallel shift in the labor demand curve. o The new demand curve shows a wedge between the amount the firm must pay to hire a worker and the amount that workers actually receive. o Payroll taxes increase total costs of employment, so these taxes reduce employment in the economy. o Firms and workers share the cost of payroll taxes, since the cost of hiring a worker rises and the wage received by workers declines. o Payroll taxes result in deadweight losses.

12. 4-12 Employment B Dollars w 1 + 1 w0w0 S D0D0 D1D1 w1w1 w 0  1 E1E1 E0E0 A The Impact of a Payroll Tax Assessed on Firms A payroll tax of $1 assessed on employers shifts down the demand curve (from D 0 to D 1 ). The payroll tax decreases the wage that workers receive from w 0 to w 1, and increases the cost of hiring a worker from w 0 to w 1 + 1.

13. 4-13 The Impact of a Payroll Tax Assessed on Workers Dollars w1w1 w0w0 S0S0 D0D0 D1D1 E1E1 E0E0 Employment S1S1 w 0 + 1 w 1  1 A payroll tax assessed on workers shifts the supply curve to the left (from S 0 to S 1 ). The payroll tax has the same impact on the equilibrium wage and employment regardless of who it is assessed on.

14. 4-14 The Impact of a Payroll Tax put on Firms with Inelastic Supply Dollars w0w0 D0D0 SD0SD0 D1D1 E0E0 A B Employment w 0 – 1 A payroll tax assessed on the firm is shifted completely to workers when the labor supply curve is perfectly inelastic. The wage is initially w 0. The $1 payroll tax shifts the demand curve to D 1, and the wage falls to w 0 – 1.

15. 4-15 Payroll Subsidies An employment subsidy lowers the cost of hiring for firms. This means payroll subsidies shift the demand curve for labor to the right (up). Total employment will increase as the cost of hiring has fallen.

16. 4-16 The Impact of an Employment Subsidy An employment subsidy of $1 per worker hired shifts up the labor demand curve, increasing employment. The wage that workers receive rises from w 0 to w 1. The wage that firms actually pay falls from w 0 to w 1 – 1. w1w1 S D1D1 D0D0 w0w0 E0E0 E1E1 B A Employment w 0 + 1 w 1 – 1

17. 4-17 The Impact of a Mandated Benefit Dollars w0w0 S1S1 D0D0 D1D1 E1E1 E0E0 P Q Employment S0S0 w1w1 w0  Cw0  C E*E* w*w* w * + B R Dollars w0w0 S1S1 D0D0 D1D1 E0E0 P Employment S0S0 w*w* R w * + C (a) Cost of mandate exceeds worker’s valuation(b) Cost of mandate equals worker’s valuation

18. 4-18 Immigration As immigrants enter the labor market, the labor supply curve shifts to the right. o Total employment increases. o Equilibrium wage decreases.

19. 4-19 Effect on Native-born Workers Immigration reduces the wages and employment of similarly-skilled native-born workers, but native-born workers may be able to increase their productivity by specializing in tasks better suited to their skills. Competing native workers will have lower wages; complementary native workers will have higher wages.

20. 4-20 The Short-Run Impact of Immigration When Immigrants and Natives Are Perfect Substitutes Dollars Supply w0w0 w1w1 Demand N0N0 Employment E1E1 N1N1 As immigrants and natives are perfect substitutes, the two groups are competing in the same labor market. Immigration shifts out the labor supply curve. As a result, the wage falls from w 0 to w 1, and total employment increases from N 0 to E 1. At the lower wage, the number of natives who work declines from N 0 to N 1.

21. 4-21 The Short-Run Impact of Immigration when Immigrants and Natives are Complements w1w1 w0w0 Dollars Supply Demand N1N1 N0N0 Employment If immigrants and natives are complements, they do not compete in the same labor market. The labor market here denotes the supply and demand for native workers. Immigration makes natives more productive, shifting out the labor demand curve. This leads to a higher native wage and to an increase in native employment.

22. 4-22 The Long-Run Impact of Immigration When Immigrants and Natives Are Perfect Substitutes Dollars Supply w0w0 w1w1 Demand N0N0 Employment N 0 + Immigrants Immigration initially shifts out the labor supply curve so the wage falls from w 0 to w 1. Over time, capital expands as firms take advantage of the cheaper workforce, shifting out the labor demand curve and restoring the original wage and level of native employment.

23. 4-23 The Native Labor Market’s Response to Immigration Dollars P PT w0w0 Demand (b) Pittsburgh Employment S0S0 S3S3 w*w* Dollars w0w0 P LA w LA (a) Los Angeles Employment S0S0 S1S1 S2S2 Demand w*w* Originally, both markets pay equilibrium wages of w 0. After immigration into Los Angeles, both markets eventually converge to a new equilibrium wage at w*, which is less than w 0.

24. 4-24 The Short-Run Labor Demand Curve Implied by Different Natural Experiments Dollar s Employment E* Employment (b) NJ-Pennsylvania minimum wage (a) Mariel w*w* D Demand curve implied by Mariel natural experiment D Demand curve implied by minimum wage natural experiment (a) The analysis of data resulting from the Mariel natural experiment implies that increased immigration does not affect the wage, so that the short-run labor demand curve is perfectly elastic. (b) The analysis of data resulting from the NJ-Pennsylvania minimum wage natural experiment implies that an increase in the minimum wage does not affect employment, so that the short-run labor demand curve is perfectly inelastic.

25. 4-25 California’s Population, 1950-1990 (% U.S. Population Living in California)

26. 4-26 Scatter Diagram Relating Wages and Immigration for Native Skill Groups

27. 4-27 The Immigration Surplus Prior to immigration, there are N native workers in the economy and national income is given by the trapezoid ABN0. Immigration increases the labor supply to M workers and national income is given by the trapezoid ACM0. Immigrants are paid a total of FCMN dollars as salary. The immigration surplus gives the increase in national income that accrues to natives and is given by the area in the triangle BCF. Dollars S S 0 C B N M A w 0 w 1 D Employment S S 0 C B N M A w 0 w 1 D F

28. 4-28 The Cobweb Model Two assumptions of the cobweb model: o Time is needed to produce skilled workers. o Persons decide to become skilled workers by looking at conditions in the labor market at the time they enter school. A “cobweb” pattern forms around the equilibrium. The cobweb pattern arises when people are misinformed. The model assumes naïve workers who do not form rational expectations. Rational expectations are formed if workers correctly perceive the future and understand the economic forces at work.

29. 4-29 The Cobweb Model in the Market for New Engineers S Dollars w1w1 E*E* E2E2 E1E1 w3w3 w*w* w2w2 w0w0 D D E0E0 Employment The initial equilibrium wage in the engineering market is w 0. The demand for engineers shifts to D, and the wage will eventually increase to w*. Because new engineers are not produced instantaneously and because students might mis-judge future opportunities in the market, a cobweb is created as the market adjusts to the increase in demand.

30. 4-30 Policy Application: Hurricanes and the Labor Market Hurricanes generate exogenous economic shocks that affect labor market conditions. Can use data to estimate difference-in-difference models that examine the economic impact on affected Florida counties relative to unaffected counties. Next slide data: 19 hurricanes that hit Florida between 1988 and 2005.

31. 4-31 Changes in Employment and Wages in Florida Counties Hit by Hurricanes Percent change in employment Percent change in earnings 1. Effect of category 1-3 hurricane on county directly hit -1.5+1.3 2. Effect of category 4-5 hurricane on county directly hit -4.5+4.4 3. Effect of category 1-3 hurricane on neighboring county +0.2-4.5 4. Effect of Category 4-5 hurricane in neighboring county +0.8-3.3 Source: Ariel R. Belasen and Solomon W. Polachek, “How Disasters Affect Local Labor Markets: The Effects of Hurricanes in Florida,” Journal of Human Resources, forthcoming 2009, Table 4.

32. 4-32 Policy Application: Hurricanes and the Labor Market How does the theory of labor market equilibrium gain support from this data? o Labor supply decreases in counties directly hit, and more so in the more-affected counties. This increases wages and lowers employment. o Labor supply increases in neighboring counties. This decreases wages and increases employment.

33. 4-33 Noncompetitive Labor Markets: Monopsony Monopsony market exists when a firm is the only buyer of labor. Monopsonists must increase wages to attract more workers. Two types of monopsonist firms: o Perfectly discriminating o Nondiscriminating

34. 4-34 Perfectly Discriminating Monopsonist Discriminating monopsonists are able to hire different workers at different wages. To maximize firm surplus (profits), a perfectly discriminating monopsonist “perfectly discriminates” by paying each worker his or her reservation wage.

35. 4-35 Nondisriminating Monopsonist Must pay all workers the same wage, regardless of each worker’s reservation wage. Must raise the wage of all workers when attempting to attract more workers. Employs fewer workers than would be employed if the market were competitive.

36. 4-36 The Hiring Decision of a Perfectly Discriminating Monopsonist A perfectly discriminating monopsonist faces an upward- sloping labor supply curve and can hire different workers at different wages. Therefore the labor supply curve gives the marginal cost of hiring. Profit maximization occurs at point A. The monopsonist hires the same number of workers as a competitive market, but each worker is paid his or her reservation wage. Dollars S VMP E Employment w*w* w 30 w 10 30 10 E*E* A

37. 4-37 The Hiring Decision of a Nondiscriminating Monopsonist A nondiscriminating monopsonist pays the same wage to all workers. The marginal cost of hiring exceeds the wage, and the marginal cost curve lies above the supply curve. Profit maximization occurs at point A; the monopsonist hires E M workers and pays them all a wage of w M.

38. 4-38 The Impact of the Minimum Wage on a Nondiscriminating Monopsonist MC E Dollars S A ww w*w* wMwM VMP E EE EMEM Employment The minimum wage may increase both wages and employment when imposed on a nondiscriminating monopsonist. A minimum wage set at w  increases employment to E .

39. 4-39 Monopoly in the Product Market: A Review Firms that have monopoly power can influence the price of the product that they sell. Monopolist faces a downward sloped market demand curve for its output and an even lower downward sloped marginal revenue curve.

40. 4-40 The Output Decision of a Monopolist A monopolist faces a downward- sloping demand curve for her output. The marginal revenue from selling an additional unit of output is less than the price of the product. Profit maximization occurs at point A where the monopolist produces q M units of output and sells each unit of output at a price of p M dollars.

41. 4-41 The Labor Demand Curve of a Monopolist The marginal revenue product gives the worker’s contribution to a monopolist’s revenues (or the worker’s marginal product times marginal revenue), and is less than the worker’s value of marginal product. Profit maximization occurs at point A where the monopolist hires fewer workers (E M ) than would be hired in a competitive market.