1. Legal Framework Affecting Public Schools
            
Chapter 1
Legal Framework Affecting Public Schools

2. Historical Development of the U.S. Constitution
                
Historical Development of the U.S. Constitution
The Articles of Confederation were established in 1781 to help govern the U.S.A.
These Articles guaranteed each state’s sovereignty and independence.
In 1783, after the Revolutionary War, each state began to act similarly to an independent country-running it’s own affairs with little concern for the Republic.
The Constitution was ratified 3 months after it was signed. (Signing: Sept. 17, 1787, Ratification: From Dec. 7, 1878 to June 21, 1788)
The Constitution adhered to the principle of separation of powers by making 3 separate branches of government-the legislative, judicial, and executive.
Additionally, powers are distributed between a central government, the states, and provinces. Articles VI, however, makes the national government supreme so states are obligated to enforce the U.S. Constitution, federal statutes, and treaties.

3. Bill of Rights
The Bill of Rights represents the primary source of individual rights and freedoms. The first 10 amendments to the Constitution are viewed as fundamental liberties of free people.
For example, the government can not pass laws prohibiting the freedom of speech.
Others include the freedom of press, assembly, and religion.
Public schools belong to the state so they too must abide to the Bill of Rights when dealing with students and school personnel.

4. U.S. System of Courts The 2 types of courts are federal and state.
Federal courts include district courts, appellate courts, and the Supreme Court.
At least one federal court is found in each state with a total of 95 in the U.S.
There are 13 federal circuit courts with Nebraska belonging to the 8th.
State courts are where most educational cases take place because they do not involve federal questions.
State courts are split into courts of general jurisdiction, court of special jurisdiction, courts of limited jurisdiction, and appellate courts.

5. Federal Court Video (8 min)

6. The Supreme Court
The Supreme Court is the highest court in the land and there is no appeal beyond the decision of this court. The only way a decision can be overturned is by an amendment to the constitution.
Cases can reach the Supreme Court only based on appeal (by right) or writ of certiorari (by granting from the Supreme Court).
There are 9 members on the Supreme Court, including a Chief Justice, who are all appointed to life terms.

7. Supreme Court Video (3 min)

8. Religion in the Public School
“Public Schools may not inculcate nor inhibit religion. Schools must be places where religion and religious conviction are treated with fairness and respect.”
First Amendment
Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof, or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of grievances.
Lemon v. Kurtzman (Lemon Test)
The actions have a secular purpose;
The actions do not have the principal or primary effect of advancing or inhibiting religion;
The actions do not foster an excessive entanglement of government with religion.

9. 1. Student Prayers
Santa Fe Independent School District v. Doe 530 U. S. 290 (2000)
The Court ruled prayer over a loudspeaker at a government
sponsored event on government property (football game on
district property) is a violation of the Establishment Clause
Student Prayer and Religious Discussion
Establishment Clause does not prohibit purely private religious speech
Students may read Bibles, say grace, say prayer anytime it is not disruptive to the learning process
Informal gatherings are ok (Meet at Pole)
School may neither discourage or encourage
2. Graduation Prayers and Baccalaureate Activities
Lee v. Weisman 505 U. S. 577 (1992)
Ruled graduation prayers unconstitutional
Baccalaureate Activities
“A school may not extend preferential treatment to baccalaureate ceremonies and may in some instances be obligated to disclaim official endorsement of such ceremonies.”

10. 3. Participation in or Encouragement of Religious Activity
Teachers and school administrators or employees, when acting in those capacities, are representatives of the state and are prohibited by the establishment clause from soliciting or encouraging religious activity, and from participating in such activity with students.
Employees also are prohibited from discouraging activity because of its religious content, and from soliciting or encouraging anti-religious activity.
4. Religion in School Curriculum
Religion is a natural part of history, which is included in the approved curriculum in SC.
When the topic is addressed, the emphasis must be purely academic and not devotional.
Schools may teach about religion and its influence on areas such as art, music, literature, and social studies.
5. Religious Content in Student Assignments
Students may express their beliefs about religion in the form of homework, artwork, and other written and oral assignments free of discrimination based on the religious content of their submissions.
Such home and classroom work should be judged by ordinary academic standards of substance and relevance and against other legitimate pedagogical concerns identified by the school.

11. 6. Distribution of Religious Literature
Schools generally shall not permit formal distribution of any materials from any non-school organization, regardless of the content of the materials on school property. Accordingly, students generally should not distribute flyers to all students on a mass level at specific established locations at the school. Students can distribute information on an informal basis that is not disruptive.
Students have a right to distribute religious literature to their schoolmates on the same terms as they are permitted to distribute other literature that is unrelated to school curriculum or activities. Schools may impose reasonable time, place, and manner on distribution of religious literature as they do on nonschool literature generally.
7. Student Participation in Religious Events Before and After School
There is no legal reason not to allow students to participate in religious events “before and after school,” which do not interfere with instructional time or the educational process.

12. 8. Religious Holidays
Although public schools may teach about religious holidays, including their religious aspects, and may celebrate the secular aspects of holidays, schools may not observe holidays as religious events or promote such observance by students.
9. Released Time for Religious Instruction
Subject to applicable State laws, School Boards may allow religious instruction off school property. If allowed, schools may not encourage or discourage participation or penalize those who do attend.
10. Federal Equal Access Act
Generally, if secondary public schools have a limited open forum, (allows non-curriculum clubs to meet), the school must allow religious groups the same access to the school media, (PA system, school newspaper, bulletin board).

13. Students, the Law and Public Schools

14. REASONABLENESS
Administrators must adopt defensible school polices, provide explicit discipline guidelines, ensure parent understanding, and ensure that due process is provided. Essex (2008) states, “Generally, rules are deemed to be reasonable if they are necessary to maintain an orderly and peaceful school environment and advance the educational process (p.48)”

15. “in loco parentis”
Essex (1999), “While in loco parentis gives school officials latitude to exert authority over students under their supervision, it is not a license to act in an arbitrary or capricious manner. The constitutional rights of students must be respected. The exercise of in loco parentis is limited to school matters involving academics and discipline. Areas outside of these two are reserved to parents.”

16. Freedom of Expression
The First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution states, “Congress shall make no law…abridging the freedom of speech, or of press or of the rights of peoples to peacefully assemble.”
The Supreme Court in the landmark Tinker case established that students are entitled to all First Amendment guarantees stating:
School officials do not possess absolute authority over their students. Students in school as well as out of school are “persons” under our Constitution. They possess fundamental rights which the State must respect…In our system, students may not be regarded as closed-circuit recipients of only that which the state chooses to communicate. They may not be confined to the expression of those sentiments that are officially approved. In the absence of a specific showing of constitutionally valid reasons to regulate their speed, students are entitled to freedom of expression of their views.

17. Freedom of Expression
“School official may restrict freedom of expression where there is evidence of material and substantial disruption, indecent or offensive speech, violation of school rules, destruction of school property, or disregard for authority. In each case, student must be provided minimal due process before any punitive action is taken.”
The First Amendment directly impacts: protests and demonstrations, school-sponsored newspapers, nonschool-sponsored student publications, dress and appearance and controversial slogans.

18. Court Decisions to Consider
Tinker vs. Des Moines ISD
Bethel vs. Fraser
Hazelwood v. Kuhlmeier

19. The Fourth Amendment
Does the 4th Amendment apply to students in public schools?
No unreasonable search/seizure
Probable cause
Particularity
Warrants
4th Amendment applies to student searches BUT…
School officials are not required to obtain search warrants
Legality of a search conducted by school officials depends on reasonableness of search

20. Court Decisions to Consider
New Jersey vs. T.L.O.
SUMMARY
Students have limited right to privacy in school
School officials must satisfy “reasonableness” standard to search
School officials are not required to obtain warrant
THE TEST
Search must be justified at inception
Q: Did school officials have reasonable grounds for search?
Search must be reasonably related in scope to circumstances justifying search
Q: Were measures used reasonably related to objectives of search and not excessively intrusive in light of age, sex of student and nature of infraction?

21. Student’s Right to Due Process
Due Process--What does it mean?
“Due process requires fundamental fairness, fair processes and fair procedures.”
Procedural Due Process—Students right to be adequately notified of pending charges or proceedings and the opportunity to be heard during these proceedings.
Substantive Due Process—Students not subjected to arbitrary or capricious acts by school officials regarding the exercise of their personal rights.
Vagueness Doctrine—Students should not be penalized for behavior that he/she could not reasonably understand to be prohibited
Presumption Standard– Students may not be deprived of rights without assurance that there is sufficient factual evidence.

22. “Procedural Safeguards and Due Process Standards”
1. Specific warning must be given about what behavior would result in corporal punishment.
2. Administration of corporal punishment must take place in the presence of another school official.
3. Upon request, a written statement must be given to parents regarding reasons for the punishment and the name of the official witness.

23. Court Decisions to Consider
Goss vs. Lopez
Students were suspended for 10 days without a hearing and were not present at the board meeting when suspensions were handed out.
Summary Ruling
All students have the right to procedural due process?
Students have the right to explain their conduct to an administrator (short-term suspension).
Students must be given a hearing before the school board for long-term suspensions and expulsion.

24. Due Process & Student Safety
Chapter 4
Due Process & Student Safety

25. Homeland Security
Increased concern for safety across the nation after 9/11
No Child Left Behind assures schools “plans” are on file regarding maintenance of safe & drug free environments

26. NSCC guidelines for safe schools:
Identify context in which academic learning should take place in school mission statement. (ie: “to learn in a safe and secure environment free of violence, drugs…”)
Identify procedure for dealing with threats.
Identify potential disasters in your school. (ie: intruders, assault, weapons, kidnappings, child abuse, accidental death, natural disasters…)

27. NSCC guidelines for safe schools cont.
Control campus access.
Identify roles and responsibilities.
Identify who to call in a crisis.
Provide training for all.
Establish and emergency communication system.
Implement uniform reporting/record-keeping system.

28. Handling GANG violence
Ensure that school personnel have knowledge of gang identification and management techniques.
Establish policies and procedures to address gang violence at school.
Implement a system to report suspected gang involvement/activity.
May need to ban dress related to gang activity.

29. School Uniforms Involve the community in drafting.
Make certain student religious expressions are preserved.
Make certain student rights of expression are preserved within reasonable limits.
Make financial provisions for economically disadvantaged students.
Enforce policies fairly and consistently.
Implement as a component of an overall school safety program.
Present drafts to legal counsel for review.
Review and revise as needed.

30. Zero Tolerance Do not use solely to rid of disruptive students.
Involve community in formation of policies regarding zero tolerance.
Recognize that students have constitutional rights while drafting.
Do not move too swiftly with an assumption that it will be a “cure-all” for student mis-conduct.
Upon expulsion of a student, seek alternative educational opportunities.
Consider student history, seriousness of offense, and immediate need to act before punishment.
Follow due process in all manners.

31. Suspension Give adequate notice of policies regarding suspension.
Compile a record of information. (Include: description, time, and place of infraction, witnesses, and previous efforts to remedy behavior)
Provide some type of hearing preceded by notification of such.
Provide written or oral notice of charges (Include evidence and opportunity to refute charges).
No delay is necessary between notice and hearing.
Listen to all sides of the issue during the hearing. Students should be allowed to present their side without interruption.
Provide written notification of the actions from the hearing to the parents/guardians (Include: charges, evidence, number of days of suspension, ISS or OSS, conditions for return to school, statement that suspension can be appealed if desired.)
Inform parents/guardians by phone immediately. Follow with written notification promptly.

32. Expulsion **These steps will meet the standards of due process if implemented correctly.**
Inform student(s), parents/guardians based on school policy of infractions that may result in expulsion.
Student is entitled to written notice of the charges and a right to a fair trial. Written notice must be furnished well in advance of the actual hearing.
The following procedural steps should be considered (at the minimum):
1. Written notice of charges, 2. Right to a fair hearing, 3. Right to inspect evidence, 4. Right to present evidence on student’s behalf, 5. Right to legal counsel, 6. Right to call witnesses, 7. Right to cross-examine, 8. Right against self-incrimination, 9. Right to appeal.

33. Metal Detectors & Drug Testing
Metal detectors should be used only when there is evidence of student behavior that poses threat to student health and safety.
Drug testing by schools has been deemed legal in the Supreme court pending it is part of the school’s district-wide program on drug education and prevention and is in the district’s interest in combating drug abuse.

34. Individuals With Disabilities EDAD 859 By: Group 2
CHAPTER 5
Individuals With Disabilities
EDAD 859
By: Group 2

35. 1975- P.L. 94-142 the Education for All Handicapped Children Act:
An act of congress after findings that supported the need.
Congress realized it was in the nations best interest for the federal government to intervene and work with the states collaboratively in addressing the needs of children with disabilities.

36. 1990- Individuals With Disabilities Education Act (IDEA):
Defines the responsibility of school districts in regards to children with disabilities ages The level of financial support is set forth to assist states in meeting their obligations.
This legislation was passed to ensure that all children with disabilities receive a free and appropriate public education in a least restrictive environment.

37. 2004- Individuals With Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEIA):
This act was a reauthorizing of IDEA.
Was signed by the president on November 19th, 2004.
A federal law that ensures that eligible children with disabilities ages 3-21 receive a free and appropriate public education consistent with their individual needs.
It provides new formulas for allocating funds to state and local education agencies.
The act also established substantsive and procedural due process rights.

38. 2000- National Council on Disability (NCD):
An independent federal agency of fifteen members that were appointed by the president and confirmed by the senate.
Purpose is to promote policies, programs,, practices and procedures designed to assure equal opportunity for individuals with disabilities irrespective of the nature and severity of their disability.
Found every state to be out of compliance (to some degree) with the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA).

39. Disciplining Students with Disabilities:
A suspension of 1-10 days is the same for a child with a disability or without a disability.
Suspension and/or expulsion over 10 days will follow the same guidelines or plan for disabled students unless the disabled student’s behavior manifested from the disability.

40. Parental Rights in Special Education:
There is to be written consent prior to a school district conducting an initial or reevaluation of a student.
All students have a right to a “Free and Appropriate Public Education” (FAPE).
Parents must have input on a child’s IEP as they know the child best.
Parents have the right to request evaluations by other providers such as an O.T. P.T. or vision specialist etc…
Parents have the right to request meetings and to refuse special education services.

41. Least Restrictive Environment:
Regular classroom with support from the regular education classroom teacher.
Regular class with support instruction from special education teacher.
Regular class with special resource instruction.
Full time special education class in a regular school.
Full time special school.
Residential school.
Homebound instruction.

42. Multi-Disciplinary Team (MDT):
MDT meetings are held to discuss the results of initial testing or reevaluation testing to determine if a student qualifies for Special Education Services.
All MDT meetings must have an administrator in attendance or an appointed person who is qualified to provide information, supervise and have knowledge of the availability of resources in the school district.
Students are reevaluated every three years.
Students are eligible for services from ages 3-21 but there are services available for children birth – 3 years old.

43. Individual Educational Plan (IEP):
A written statement for each child with a disability that describes their educational program. It is developed, reviewed and revised in accordance with IDEA and must meet Rule 51 and IDEA requirements.
Must meet annually.
Can include related services such as O.T., P.T., etc…as needed.
Must be developed and implemented for each public and non public school child who receives special education and related services.

44. Questions? Check this out!

45. School Personnel and School District Liability
Chapter 6
School Personnel and School District Liability

46. Liability
Liability involving school personnel normally falls into two categories: intentional torts and unintentional.
Intentional torts-such as assault, battery, libel, slander, defamation, false arrest, malicious prosecution, and invasion of privacy-require proof of intent or willfulness.
Unintentional torts-such as simple negligence-does not require such proof of intent or willfulness.
In either case, charges may be sustained if the school failed to act appropriately or improperly.
Forseeability, a crucial element in liability cases, is defined as the teacher’s or administrator’s ability to predict that a certain activity may prove harmful. For example, a school would be liable if broken glass panes exist in a doorway.

47. Student safety
Teachers have a legal duty to instruct students on the proper use of equipment and materials. Failure to do so makes the teacher liable. Examples include use of table saws, welding equipment, science equipment, and athletic equipment and techniques.
There is no clear cut line for procedures for before and after school supervision. Each district must evaluate their own situation and provide the supervision necessary. At the very least, students should be periodically monitored. If problem arise, then full time supervision would be required
A letter informing parents of before and after school monitoring policies should be sent home, signed by the legal guardian, and returned to the school.

48. General thoughts
School grounds should be accessible and considered safe for visitors.
Personal information regarding students must be kept confidential.
Schools should develop a culture and a set of values that place a high premium on respect of all individuals in the school community.
Items retrieved from students, if not illegal, should be returned to students or their parents in a reasonable time frame and not retained permanently by school personnel.
Well planned liability workshops should be offered periodically to ensure that school personnel are aware of the limits of liability.

49. Interesting Video (2 min)
News Story

50. Liability and Student Records
Chapter 7
School Law and the Public Schools, 2008
Nathan Essex

51. Public Law
The Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA) protects confidentiality of student records.
Rights of Parents: Parents or legal guardians have the right to inspect their child’s record
Right of Noncustodial Parents: The courts have maintained that neither parent could be denied access to the child’s records under the Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act.
Rights of Eligible Students: The student may exercise the same rights afforded parents or guardians, if he or she has reached the age of 18 or in enrolled in a postsecondary institution.
Rights of School Personnel: Teachers, counselors, and administrators who have a legitimate educational interest in viewing record may do so. A written form, must be maintained permanently with the file.

52. Confidentiality
School counselors are not required to share information obtained from students with their parents. Records that remain in the sole possession of counselors are not subject to FERPA. Educational records under FERPA do no include personal files. When circumstances arise in which public disclosure is in the public interest, confidentiality is lost.
Federal and state officials may inspect files without parental consent in order to enforce federal or state laws or to audit or evaluate federal education programs.

53. Landmark U.S. Supreme Court Rulings
Owasso ISD v. Falvo, 2002, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that peer grading does not violate FERPA.
Gonzaga University v. John Doe, 2002, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that student and parent may not sue for damages under 42 U.S.C to enforce provisions of the Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act.

54. Defamation Involving School Personnel
When school personnel communicate personal and sensitive information to another unauthorized person that results in injury to the student’s reputation or standing in the school or that diminishes the respect and esteem to which the student is held, they may faces charges of libel or slander depending on the manner and intent in which such information was communicated.
Slander is oral defamation, when school personnel inadvertently communicate sensitive and damaging information contained in student file to unauthorized individuals.

55. Defamation Involving School Personnel
Libel is written defamation. Teachers, counselors and principals should refrain from including damaging information in the student’s record for which there is no basis.
Qualified privilege protects school personnel that provide oral or written information regarding a student, some of which might be contained in the student’s file when the requests are made and the school personnel responds in a truthful and reasonable manner. This privilege is based on the premise that the educator is operating in good faith.

56. Defamation Involving School Personnel
Acts of Malice exists when there is an clear intent to harm or injure another.
Defenses Against Defamation include privilege, good faith and truth.

57. Chapter 8: Teacher Freedoms
Substantial Process—the state must have a valid objective when it intends to deprive a teacher of life, liberty, or property, and the means used must be reasonably calculated to achieve its objective.
Procedural Due Process—the state may not deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law.
Freedom of Expression:
In school, limited if it creates material disruption to the
educational interest of the school district
Outside of school, comments need to prefaced that
comments are personal opinion
Statements cannot be false or detrimental to the school
district

58. Speech Outside the School Environment
Freedom of Speech outside the school environment is well established, however, a teacher should preface his or her comments by indicating that he or she is speaking as a private citizen rather than an employee of the board
Pickering v. Board of Education—US Supreme Court held that in the absence of proof of the teacher knowingly or recklessly making false statements the teacher had a right to speak on issues of public importance without being dismissed from his position.
Academic Freedom
Academic freedom is not a right
Classrooms cannot be used to promote personal or political agendas
Fowler v. Board of Education of Lincoln County—Court deemed that teachers are role models with responsibility for inculcating fundamental values, and that those values disfavor expression that is highly offensive to others.
Freedom of Association and Membership of Subversive Organizations
Teachers have freedom of association as long as they are not involved in illegal activities
Keyishian v. Board of Regents 1967 US Supreme Court case which declared that stated that the classroom is peculiarly the "marketplace of ideas.”
Political Rights and Participation in Campaigns
Teachers have the right to political office, but may be asked to take a leave of absence while in office
Minielly v. State case in Oregon, the district court held to be invalid a state law that prohibited public employees from running for political office.

59. Dress and Grooming
Dress and grooming can be regulated by the board
East Hartoford Education Association v. Board of Education of Town of East Hartford—A teacher was reprimanded for failing to wear a tie while teaching. He took action in the United States District Court for the District of Connecticut and was granted a motion for summary judgment based on the fact that the plaintiff asserted no cognizable constitutional interest.
Right to Privacy
Erb v. Iowa State Board of Public Instruction—held the revocation of a teaching certificate for adultery was impermissible when defendant made no findings of the fact and the statute did not permit “personal moral judgment,” especially when only one incident occurred with no adverse affect shown.
Teachers are entitled to privacy and cannot be penalized for private noncriminal acts
Pregnant unwed teachers may not be automatically dismissed unless there is a definite reason for doing so.
Religious Freedoms
Good News Club v. Milford Central School, (2001), held that when a government operates a “limited public forum,” it may not discriminate against speech that takes place within that forum on the basis of the viewpoint it expresses—in this case, against religious speech engaged in by an Evangelical Christian club for children.
Religious Freedoms can be limited if dress creates a reverent atmosphere
Religious rights of teachers must be respected, so long as they do not violate the establishment cause of the 1st Amendment by creating excessive entanglement in the school.

60. Discrimination in Employment
Chapter 9
Group 2
Josh, Angelique, Gary, Jessica, & Roni

61. Statues prohibiting discrimination
Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964
Prohibits employment discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin.
Title IX of the Education Amendments Act of 1972
Prohibits sexual discrimination by public and private educational institutions receiving federal funds.
Equal Protection Clause of 14th Amendment
Provides protection against group discrimination and unfair treatment.

62. Statues prohibiting discrimination
Rehabilitation Act of 1973
Prohibits discrimination against any otherwise qualified person who has a disability with respect to employment, training, compensation, promotion, fringe benefits, and terms and conditions of employment.
Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990
Protects individuals with disabilities against discrimination and assures equal access to opportunity.

63. Statues prohibiting discrimination
Affirmative Action - Proposition 209
A means to eliminate affirmative action programs supported by governmental agencies.
Prohibits discrimination and preferential treatment on the basis of race, sex, ethnicity, color, or national origin.

64. Statues prohibiting discrimination
Age Discrimination Act in Employment Act of 1967
Prohibit forced retirement of employees.
Pregnancy Discrimination Act of 1978
Amendment to Title VII which protects pregnant employees against any form of discrimination based on pregnancy.

65. Other areas protected…
Sexual Harassment
Prohibited by Title VII and Title IX
Issues involving National Origin: Proposition 187
Enacted in 1994 denies public social services to people who are unable to establish there status as U.S. citizens, lawful permanent residents, or aliens lawfully admitted for certain period of time.
Some consider this to violate the equal protection clause of the 14th amendment.
Is one of the most controversial issues and still being debated.

66. Chapter 10: Recruitment, Tenure, Dismissal and Due Process EDAD 859

67. Tenure:
Teachers are entitled to fundamental fairness, even if they have not achieved tenure.
Tenure is not designed to protect teachers who are inept or ineffective. However, it should protect competent and effective teachers.
Teachers may only be dismissed for specified reasons that are documentable and objective evidence.
Due Process procedures must be followed to be sure that dismissal decisions are legally defensible.
Nonrenewal of a non tenured teacher’s contract does not generally require due process, unless there is an alleged constitutional violation.

68. Dismissal for Cause:
Grounds for dismissal include incompetency, insubordination, neglect of duty, immorality, justifiable decrease in number of teaching positions, financial exigency or “other good and just cause”.
A board of education may dismiss a teacher for almost any reason , as long as the reason is valid and meets the due process requirements.
To dismiss a teacher for incompetency systematic evaluations, documentation of performance and a thorough teacher improvement plan.
Sexual misconduct involving students by school personnel will almost always result in dismissal.

69. Dismissal for Cause (cont.):
5. Community norms and expectations regarding professional conduct of teachers are very important considerations in cases involving alleged immoral conduct and and dismissal.
6. A felony conviction or series of misdemeanors may result in dismissal and revocation of a teaching license.
7. Private acts of homosexuality or adultery cannot form a basis for dismissal unless there is evidence that such acts render the teacher ineffective and there is proof that such acts adversely affect a teacher’s ability to perform his/her assigned duties.

70. Financial Exigency:
This is when a district faces a bona fide reduction in its budget which results in abolishing certain employment positions. The school board must demonstrate financial exigency.
All employees must be afforded full due process provisions if affected by a reduction in force.
School districts cannot use financial exigency to remove an employee who has exercised a constitutionally protected right.
Seniority and job performance should receive priority in RIF (reduction in force) decisions.
School district policy/state statutes must be followed to the letter to implement RIF policies.

71. Collective Bargaining:
The basic intent of collective bargaining is to create teacher empowerment and shared power between teachers and school boards.
This process should be guided by good faith efforts between all parties involved.
School boards should not negotiate items that they have no legal authority to negotiate unless they have statutory authority to do so.
Any action taken by striking teachers that may disrupt educational opportunities for students will not likely receive court support.
Collective bargaining agreements should not impair teacher’s constitutionally protected rights and freedoms.

72. The Instructional Program
Chapter 11
School Law and Public Schools, 2008
Nathan L. Essex

73. Control of Public Schools
The U.S. Constitution makes no reference to education. The Tenth Amendment places responsibility on each state to provide free public schools.
The legal authority for defining the curriculum of public schools is the state legislature, in a few states, it is the state legislature and the state board of education.
State v. Harworth established the state’s responsibility for public education.

74. Compulsory Attendance
Every state requires children between certain ages, usually 6-16 years old to attend public, private or home school.
The parent has an obligation to the child and state to ensure that the child receives an appropriate education.
Exceptions:
Wisconsin v. Yoder-the state’s interest regarding universal and compulsory education is by no means absolute to the exclusion or subordination of all other interests. The First Amendment prohibits state action that interferes with a parent’s right to control the religious upbringing of his or her child.
Additionally, married students who are emancipated and are no longer under their parents’ care.

75. Attendance
Every state requires that children between 6 or 7 and 16 or 17 attend public, private or home school.
Parents who fail to get their children to school face criminal charges.
One exception to the attendance requirements are if a student has a religious belief that conflicts continuing education as in Wisconsin vs. Yoder. Yoder was Amish and stopped schooling after 8th grade. Another exception may be if a student is married and no longer under their parents’ care.
Students who are home schooled are required to meet standards for curriculum and instruction, length of instruction, and days in which instruction should be provided.

76. Residence
Schools generally are required to educate students who reside within the districts boundaries. Residence is a student’s actual dwelling place. Domicile is where the student intends to remain indefinitely. A student’s domicile follows that of his or her legal guardian.
If the child is emancipated the domicile is determined by where the student intends to remain indefinitely.

77. Curriculum
Curriculum standards, such as courses offered and achievement required, are based through state policy. Local schools may develop other standards as long as they do not contradict state requirements.
State legislation requires that certain subjects be included in school curricula such as American history. However, the specifics are left to be decided by local school districts.
Many schools fear teaching the Bible due to possible lawsuits. However, many Bible classes are being offered at public schools throughout the United States (see bibleinschools.net). Some guidelines for Bible use include teaching objectively and in a strict secular manner, instructing teachers on how and what to teach, and formulating policies for teachers, students, and parents to follow.

78. No Child Left Behind Act of 2001
There are four guiding principles: stronger accountability, increased flexibility, expanded options and improved instruction.
States must insure that students are tested in math and reading by school year.
By 2007, state must insure that students are tested at least one annual assessment in science in at least one grade level: 3-5, 6-9 and
States must set and then meet adequate yearly progress toward the goal of having children meet proficiency levels in core subjects by the year
Schools that fail to meet AYP face sanctions including offering supplemental services, transportation or restructuring.

79. No Child Left Behind Act of 2001
Districts have flexible use of funds and may transfer up to 50 percent of the funding they receive under the four major state grant programs (Teacher Quality state grants, Educational Technology state grants, Innovative Programs, and Safe and Drug-Free Schools) to any one of the program or to Title I.

80. Grading and Academic Requirements
Courts generally are reluctant to interfere in cases involving academic matters as they feel educators are better equipped to evaluate students.
The state does however have the authority to set graduation requirements and check student competencies based on standardized tests.
Courts will typically support the schools in grade reduction in relation to student absences as long as the policies are reasonable and do not violate the state’s attendance statute.
School districts may use grade reduction for misbehavior as long as a relationship is shown between the misconduct and their classroom work.
Students are to be awarded a diploma if he or she has met the academic requirements for graduation. However, a student may be denied participation in the graduation ceremony if misconduct has occurred.

81. Group 2: Roni, Angelique, Gary, Josh & Jessica
School Desegregation
Chapter 12
Group 2: Roni, Angelique, Gary, Josh & Jessica

82. De Jure Segregation Fourteenth Amendment
provided for “equal protection under the laws”
Plessy v. Ferguson - Supreme court upheld “equal but separate”
Brown v. Board of Education - Supreme court struck down “separate but equal”.

83. Brown v. Board of Education (Brown I)
Landmark turning point for desegregation
Stated that “Segregation...in public schools has a detrimental effect upon the colored children”
Provided NO remedy for segregation leading to Brown II

84. Brown II
Supreme court rulings to ensure proper implementation of the ruling in Brown I
District courts were mandated to supervise the transition
School districts were to implement this ruling in “good faith and with all deliberate speed”.

85. School issues along the way...
Racial Balances or Racial Quotas
some districts implemented a racial balance/quota requirement of 71%-29% on specific schools
One-Race Schools
certain schools were allowed to remain all or largely of one race due to concentration of minorities in parts of a city, but were under close scrutiny

86. School issues along the way...
Remedial Altering of Attendance Zones
some school districts drastically altered districts and attendance zones to accomplish desegregation
Transportation of Students
situations varied greatly and there were no provisions for dealing with transportation

87. Free Transfer and freedom of Choice Program
Many school districts adopted freedom of choice plans to avoid desegregation orders
Schools would rezone their districts AND provide that a student could request to be transfered back to their old school
Courts ruled that this perpetuated racial segregation

88. De Jure & De Facto De Jure Segregation De Facto Segregation
racial segregation derived from the enforcement of law
De Facto Segregation
present when the number of students enrolled in a school represent a racial or ethnic minority
this developed when no action was taken by the school district to require desegregation

89. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 specifically Title VI
prohibits discrimination on basis of race or color in programs that receive federal funds
to ensure the elimination of segregated schools

90. it is illegal and will not be supported by the courts
Segregation
it is illegal and will not be supported by the courts

91. Chapter 13 Finance
School Funding and Taxes
The power of taxation for education resides with the state limited only by federal and state constitution.
State constitutional provisions allow the legislature to make provisions for a system of public schools and to tax citizens for support of public education.
The legislature has the inherent power not only to tax citizens for support of education but also to distribute funds for the operation of public schools.
Tax distribution formulas are determined by the legislature based on the needs of various types of school districts and the ability of citizens in those districts to support public education.

92. Legal Challenges to School Taxation
Serrano v. Priest—Case that supported equal protection challenge regarding disparities in funding and that the quality of a child’s education should not be a function of the wealth of the district in which the child resides.
Robinson v. Cahill—Case which decided that funding of public schools that rely heavily on local property taxes violated the state constitution as well as the equal protection clause of the 14th Amendment.
Education Act of 1975—mission is to develop a thorough and efficient system of free public schools for all children irrespective of socioeconomic status or geographical location.

93. San Antonio Independent School District v. Rodriguez
Mexican American parents in Edgewood filed a class action equity suit on behalf of minority children throughout the state who were poor and resided in a school community that had a low property tax base.
The Supreme Court's decision held that a school-financing system based on local property taxes was not an unconstitutional violation of the 14th Amendment's equal protection clause. The majority opinion stated that the appellees did not sufficiently prove that education is a fundamental right or that the financing system was subject to strict scrutiny.
According to the Rodriguez ruling, a funding system based on local property tax that provides a minimum education to all students is constitutional.
Rodriguez case removed school finance litigation from the federal courts to the state courts.

94. Post-Rodriguez Decisions
Following the Rodriguez decision, courts have been more inclined to focus their attention on educational quality as influenced by teacher quality, appropriate instructional materials, student achievement scores, and graduation rates as a means of addressing equal opportunity provision for students.
There is no uniformity among courts in their decisions regarding adequacy of funding for public schools.
State may collect tax funds from wealthy school districts and redistribute them to poorer districts to achieve a measure of equity.

95. Post-Rodriguez Cases
Williams v. California- A landmark civil rights case which challenged the state to ensure quality learning conditions for millions of low-income students of color. The Williams settlement creates new standards for measuring whether schools have the basic conditions students need to learn such as textbooks, well-trained teachers and clean and safe school facilities. It also provides opportunities for communities to become involved and holds school officials accountable for showing how well schools are meeting these standards.
CFE v. State of New York—The court held that NYC children were not receiving the constitutionally mandated opportunity for a sound basic education and ruled that the governor and legislature had to ensure that every school in New York City has the resources necessary to provide the opportunity for a sound basic education.
Montoy v. State of Kansas—A state district court held that the state’s school finance plan violates the state constitution. The court found that the state failed to distribute resources equitably among children who are equally entitled to a suitable education.
Lewis E. v. Spagnolo— A class of schoolchildren residing in East St. Louis School District 189 challenges the adequacy of the education being provided to them in District 189 schools. The courts ruled that that questions relating to the quality of a public school education are for the legislature, not the courts, to decide.

96. Student discipline act
PROJECT
Student discipline act
DATE
23 JULY 2009
CLIENT
GROUP 2

97. Purpose of Act
To assure the protection of all students the constitutional right to due process and fundamental fairness

98. Summary of Act
The school may authorize an emergency exclusion, suspension, expulsion or mandatory reassignment of any pupil for conduct prohibited by the school’s policies.

99. Important Rules:
School board must establish rules and standards regarding student conduct .
Schools must attempt to carry out said rules.
Rules must be distributed to each student and his/her parent or guardian at the beginning of the school year.

100. Procedures to be followed are outlined in detail for:
Emergency Exclusion
Short-term Suspension
Long-term Suspension
Expulsion
Mandatory Reassignment

101. Duty to Report Criminal Violations
School authorities MUST notify law enforcement when they know or suspect that an act is a violation of the Nebraska Criminal Code (is illegal).
School authorities will not be held liable as a result of any report unless:
report was false and they knew it was false when reporting it
the minor was in custody and the location where they were being held was dangerous and/or medical treatment was withheld

102. Nebraska Student Discipline Act
An outline of the Act may be downloaded by clicking on the image to the right or at:

103. Important Case Briefs EDAD859 Group 2
Veronica Dorsey, Jessica Fry, Gary Graham, David Graves, Angelique Gunderson

104. Tinker v Des Moines Topic Students’ First Amendment rights
Supreme Court Decision
In a 7 to 2 decision, the U.S. Supreme Court determined the students wearing of the armbands as a silent expression was protected by the First Amendment. The school failed to demonstrate that the actions of the students would interfere with appropriate school discipline.
Educational Significance
• Students rights are protected under the First Amendment in as much as they do not disrupt the learning environment.
• School administrators have the burden of proving that a particular demonstration of expression will be significantly disruptive.
• Merely a desire to avoid the discomfort and unpleasantness of an unpopular view is not enough to justify the prohibition of the expression.
• When making determinations on disciplinary policy that may bring into question a students First Amendment rights, other cases should be noted as examples (i.e. Bethel School District v. Fraser, Morse v. Frederick, and Hazelwood v. Kuhlmeier)

105. Bethel School Dist v Fraser
Topic
The issue involved is whether or not students can say whatever they please with regard to the First Amendment during a public school forum.
Ruling
On additional appeal, the U.S. Supreme Court found that while public students have the right to advocate unpopular and controversial issues in school, that right must be balanced against the schools' interest in teaching socially appropriate behavior.
A public school may legitimately establish standards of civil and mature conduct. The Court observed that such standards would be difficult to convey in a school that tolerated lewd, indecent and offensive speech and conduct that the student in this case exhibited. In conclusion, the school district's decision was upheld.
Educational Significance
School officials may restrict freedom of expression where there is evidence of material and substantial disruption, indecent or offensive speech, violation of school rules, destruction of school property, or disregard for authority. In each case, students must be provided minimal due process before any punitive action is taken.
Buttons, pamphlets, and other insignia may be banned if the message communicated is vulgar or obscene or mock others based on race, origin, color, sex, or religion.

106. New Jersey v TLO Topic Unwarranted searches ad seizure of property
Ruling
The supreme court of New Jersey reversed the appellate division’s ruling and ordered the evidence found in T.L.O’s purse suppressed.
The court proceeded to hold that whenever an “official search violates constitutional rights the evidence may not be used in a criminal case; they deemed the Choplick’s search was not reasonable. The mere possession of the cigarettes was not a violation of school rules; therefore a desire for evidence of smoking did not justify the search.
Educational Significance
Be extremely cautious when accusing or searching students
Be aware of all rules and the fine print.
Document all actions when dealing with behavior incidents
Make sure there is reasonable suspicion to do the search and seizure initially

107. Hazelwood v Kuhlmeier Topic
The high school principal prevented the school publication of Spectrum that profiled three pregnant students and quoted other students on reasons for their parents’ divorce. The principal was afraid that the identity of the three students would be revealed, sexual activity content was too graphic for younger students, and parents of students were not able to respond to comments made by students.
Ruling
Supreme Court reversed the ruling that the principal did not violate students free speech rights by ordering certain material removed from an issue of the student newspaper. Students’ First Amendment rights are not the same as those of adults due to the special characteristics of the school environment.
Educational Significance
The Hazelwood ruling has important implications for student newspapers that are part of the school’s curriculum in that restrictions may be placed on them based on reasonable grounds. Administrators may exercise greater authority in monitoring student press but care should be taken not to violate the student rights in the process. This may exercise content-based control over student expression and use of restricting student speech. Some states have passed laws guaranteeing that non-forum newspapers, such as the Hazelwood East High School newspaper, are guaranteed the rights that the First Amendment describes.

108. Goss v Lopez
Topic
Due process; Hearing or notice; Procedure when suspending a student for up to ten days.
Ruling
The state law was found unconstitutional both by the federal district court and again by the Supreme Court. The case determined that students facing suspensions of up to ten days or less were entitled to:
1. oral or written notice of charges
2. an explanation of evidence to be used against them, and
3. an opportunity to present their side of the issue
Educational Significance
Due process is a right of everyone according to the U.S. Constitution
Every student must be given notice (oral or written) of the misconduct, an explanation of the evidence, and an opportunity for a hearing.
Ensure every situation is handled carefully and the due process is adhered to.
Ensure school policies align with state and federal law.
Note that suspensions of more than 10 days require more formal procedures.

109. Lee v Wiseman
Topic
Inclusion of clergy to offer prayer as part of public school ceremonies
Ruling
The U.S. Supreme Court held that "Including clergy who offer prayers as part of an official public school graduation ceremony is forbidden by the Establishment Clause.
Prayer exercises in elementary and secondary schools carry a particular risk of indirect coercion. The school district's supervision and control of a high school graduation ceremony places subtle and indirect public and peer pressure on attending students to stand as a group or maintain respectful silence during the invocation and benediction...
The petitioners' argument that the option of not attending the ceremony excuses any inducement or coercion in the ceremony itself is rejected. In this society, high school graduation is one of life's most significant occasions, and a student is not free to absent herself from the exercise in any real sense of the term 'voluntary'..."
The United States Supreme Court affirmed the United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit judgment.
Educational Significance
This case clarifies that clergy may not lead the student body in prayer at a school-sponsored event. If administrators are approached about having clergy members offer a prayer at a school-sponsored event, suggest that they meet before the event to allow interested members to participate so that no one is excluded in their right to convene, and in protecting those that might be opposed, such allowance would protect them in their right to be free from what may be interpreted as coercion by this group.

110. Wisconsin v Yoder Educational Significance
Topic
Compulsory Attendance Laws
Ruling
The U.S. Supreme Court affirmed the decision in holding that the First Amendment prohibits state action that interferes with a parent’s right to control the religious upbring of their child.
Educational Significance
There are certain exceptions to the compulsory attendance requirements.

111. Stevens v Chesteen Topic
Does a brief absence from class constitute breach of duty of reasonable supervision.
Ruling
The court ruled in favor of Chesteen noting that his absence in this situation does not breach his duty of reasonable supervision. Teenagers like Stevens often participate in “pick-up” football games that are completely unsupervised. This case involved a “touch” football game, and not a tackle game, thus making violent collisions involving bystanders unlikely.
Education significance
It is important for all teachers to properly supervise student to the best of their ability. If a child is restricted from participating in physical education class that student must be well away from any activity that could cause injury to them. Necessary precautions for this situation should be in writing and included in the class syllabus to avoid any legal troubles. One possible solution is moving injured student to the library to finish a written assignment about nutrition or exercise as a possible alternative while their injury heals.

112. Cox v. York County School Dist. No. 083.
Topic
Termination of probationary teachers
Ruling
The school board ruled against Cox. The district court favored Cox because the school district failed to provide Cox due process as required by law in deciding not to renew her contract. The district court ordered the school district to reinstate her. The school district appealed this decision. The Nebraska Supreme Court upheld this decision. They found that the Board did not meet the statutory requirement that Cox be evaluated at least once per semester based on actual classroom observations for an entire instructional period.
Educational Significance
Legal Significance for the Administrator:
Follow state statutes regarding evaluation procedures
Make sure to document all observations both formal and informal as well as comments.
Follow district policy

113. C. Patricia Skinner v. Ogallala Public School
Topic
School Liability /Worker’s Compensation
Ruling
The Nebraska Supreme Court concluded that Skinner’s injuries did not arise in the course of her employment by the District and the Nebraska Worker’s Compensation Act did not bar her from bringing this tort action against the District. The court supported the trial court decision that found Skinner to be an invitee.
Educational Significance:
School districts will be held liable if the grounds and schools are not safe places even in “off” school hours. School districts should post warning signs and fix any areas that would pose a threat to someone’s safety immediately if they are to not be held at least partially liable if an injury occurs on school property.

114. Mitchell Crider v. Bayard City Schools.
Topic
Physical Therapy / Special Education
Ruling
The trial court dismissed the action. On review, the court reversed the judgment of the trial court. With regard to the physical therapy provider, the court held that the parents had, in fact, stated a cause of action. The court explained that once it undertook the contract to provide the child with services, the physical therapy provider had an obligation to provide those services with reasonable care. As to the school district, however, the court agreed with the trial court's conclusion that the school district's failure to monitor the physical therapy provider was not actionable.
Education Significance:
A free appropriate public education requires that each handicapped child be provided with personalized instruction with support services to permit the child to benefit educationally from that instruction, which instruction and services must be provided at public expense, must meet the state's educational standards, must approximate the grade levels used in the state's regular education, and must comply with the child's individualized educational program.

115. Norman v. Ogallala Public School.
Topic
Proper Instruction and Safety Issues
Ruling
Damages  The trial courts award of $342, in damages. School District Appealed: The school claims the damages are excessive because Christopher has completely recovered from his injuries, has no limitations on his range of motion or his activities, and it is unlikely that he will incur future medical expenses.
However, the record contains extensive evidence, including both testimony and photographs, demonstrating the pain that Christopher endured and the permanent scarring resulting from the burns. In addition to the pain Christopher endured, Christopher’s parents incurred medical bills in the amount of $44, as a direct result of Christopher’s injuries. The award of damages was not so excessive as to be the result of passion, prejudice, mistake, or some other means not apparent in the record.

116. Norman v. Ogallala Public School. Cont’d
Ruling
Appeal from the District Court for Keith County: John P. Murphy, Judge. Affirmed
Educational Significance
Proper instruction and Safety must take precedence over everything. The district must insure that the students and staff are properly educated to any dangers of and activity. All safety precautions must be taken or the activity should not take place.