1. Chapter8. Observation Studies Donald R. Cooper & Pamela S. Schindler
授課老師：洪新原　教授
組員：林佳縈
李海微
黃天慧

2. Using Observation

3. Observation and the Research Process

4. Selecting the Data Collection Method
依不同調查問題的各種情況來選擇使用調查法或觀察法
使用觀察法的情況：
必須掩飾目的
受訪者不願回應
只有行為資料的需求
使用調查法的情況：

5. Selecting an Observation Approach

6. Observation Classification
Nonbehavioral
Behavioral
Record analysis
Physical condition analysis
Process or Activity analysis
Nonverbal observation
Linguistic observation
Extralinguistic observation
Spatial observation

7. Nonbehavioral Observation
Record analysis
is the extraction of data from current or historical records. Data mining is a type of record analysis.
Physical condition analysis
is the recording of observations of current conditions resulting from prior decisions.
relate to a safety audit or an analysis of inventory conditions or an analysis of food preparation areas in a restaurant.

8. Nonbehavioral Observation(Cont.)
Process or Activity analysis
observation by a time study of stages in a process, evaluated on both effectiveness and efficiency.
relates to any organization that tracks time related to activity or process steps and stages.

9. Behavioral Observation
Nonverbal
the most prevalent and refers to recording physical actions or movements of participants.
Linguistic
the observation of human verbal behavior during conversation, presentation, or interaction.

10. Behavioral Observation(Cont.)
Extralinguistic

11. Behavioral Observation(Cont.)
Extralinguistic
the observation of human verbal behavior during conversation, presentation, or interaction.
Spatial
the recording of how humans physically relate to one another.

12. Evaluation of Behavioral Observation

13. Evaluation of Observation
Strengths
Securing information that is otherwise unavailable
Avoiding participant filtering/ forgetting
Securing environmental context
Optimizing naturalness
Reducing obtrusiveness
Weaknesses
Enduring long periods
Incurring higher expenses
Having lower reliability of inferences
Keeping large records

14. The Observer-Participant Relationship

15. The Observer-Participant Relationship
may be viewed from three perspectives:
Whether the observation is direct or indirect
Whether the observer’s presence is known or unknown to the participant
What role the observer plays in the events or effects of events recorded.
Whether the observation is direct or indirect.
Direct observation occurs when the observer is physically present and personally monitors what takes place.
Indirect observation occurs when the recording is done by mechanical, photographic, or electronic means.

16. Whether the observer’s presence is known or unknown to the participant.
Concealment shields the observer from the participant to avoid error caused by the observer’s presence.
A modified approach involves partial concealment.
Whether the observer should participate in the situation while observing.
Participant observation, exists when the observer enters the social setting and acts as both an observer and a participant.

17. Conducting an observation Study

18. The Type of Study Simple observation System observation
Its practice is not standardized, as one would expect, because of the discovery nature of exploratory research.
System observation
It employs standardized procedures, trained observers, schedules for recording, and other devices for the observer.

19. The Type of Study Research Class Environment Purpose Research Tool
Completely unstructured
Natural setting
Generate hypotheses
Unstructured
Laboratory
Structured
Observation checklist
Completely structured
Test hypotheses

20. The Type of Study Observation checklist
It is a measuring instrument for testing hypotheses of class 4 studies.

21. Content Specification
Specific conditions, events, or activities that we want to observe determine the observational reporting system.
Observation may be at either a factual or an inferential level.

22. Content Specification
Factual
Inferential
Introduction/identification of salesperson and customer.
Credibility of salesperson. Qualified status of customer.
Time and day of week
Convenience for the customer. Welcoming attitude of the customer.
Product presented.
Customer interest in product.
Selling points presented per product.
Customer acceptance of selling points per product.
Number of customer objections raised per product.
Customer concerns about features and benefits.
Salesperson’s rebuttal of objection.
Effectiveness of salesperson’s rebuttal attempts.
Salesperson’s attempt to restore controls.
Effectiveness of salesperson’s control attempt.
Consequences for customer who prefers interaction.

23. Observer Training
General guidelines for the qualification and observers.
Concentration
Detail-oriented
Unobtrusive
Experience

24. Data collection
The data collection plan specifies the details of the task.
It answer the questions who, what, when, how, and where

25. Data collection-what
The characteristics of the observation must be set as sampling elements and units of analysis.
Event sampling
The researcher records selected behavior that answers the investigative questions.
Time sampling
The researcher must choose among a time-point sample, continuous real-time measurement, or a time-interval sample.

26. Data collection-what Time-point sample Continuous measurement
Recording occurs at fixed points for a specified length.
Continuous measurement
Behavior or the elapsed time of the behavior is recorded.

27. Data collection-what
Any of the following could be defined as an act for an observation study:
A single expressed thought
A physical movement
A facial expression
A motor skill

28. Unobtrusive Measures

29. Unobtrusive Measures
Innovative observational procedures that can be both nonreactive and inconspicuously applied.
Of particular interest are measures involving indirect observation based on physical traces(實體追蹤) that include erosion (耗損性)and accretion(添加物).
Physical trace methods present a strong argument for use based on their ability to provide low-cost access to frequency, attendance, and incidence data without contamination from other method or reactivity from participants.

30. Thanks for listening