1. Chapter 4 Attitudes, Values, & Ethics1

2. Attitude
Attitude - a psychological tendency expressed by evaluating an entity with some degree of favor or disfavor
Should poor performance be
blamed on “bad attitude”? 2

3. ABC Model of an Attitude
Component Measured by Example
ffect Physiological indicators I don’t like
Verbal statements my boss.
about feelings
ehavioral Observed behavior I want to
intentions Verbal statements transfer to
about intentions another dept. A B C
ognition Attitude scales I believe my
Verbal statements boss plays
about beliefs favorites.
M.J. Rosenberg and C. I. Hovland, “Cognitive, Affective, and Behavioral Components
of Attitude,” in M.J. Rosenberg, C.I. Hovland, W.J. McGuire, R.P. Abelson, and J.H.
Brehm, Attitude Organization and Change, 1960 3

4. Cognitive Dissonance
Cognitive Dissonance - a state of tension that is produced
when an individual
experiences conflict
between attitudes
and behavior
attitude
behavior 4

5. Two Influences on Attitude Formation
Direct Experience
Social Learning - the process of deriving attitudes from family, peer groups, religious organizations, and culture 5

6. Four Processes for Social Learning through Modeling
The learner must
Focus on the model
Retain what was observed
Practice the behavior
Be motivated 6

7. Attitude-Behavior Correspondence Requirements
Attitude specificity - a specific attitude
Attitude relevance - some self-interest
Measurement timing - measurement close to observed behavior
Personality factors - ex. self-monitoring
Social constraints - acceptability 7

8. Work Attitudes: Job Satisfaction
Job Satisfaction - a pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one’s job or job experience
Organizational Citizenship Behavior
Behavior that is above and beyond duty
Related to job satisfaction 8

9. Work Attitudes: Organizational Commitment
Affective Commitment
Organizational
Commitment
The strength of an
individual’s
identification with
an organization
Continuance Commitment
Normative Commitment

10. Values
Values - enduring beliefs that a specific mode of conduct or end state of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or end state of existence 14

11. Values
Instrumental - values that represent the acceptable behaviors to be used in achieving some end state
Terminal - values that represent the goals to be achieved, or the end states of existence 15

12. Work Values Achievement (career advancement)
Concern for others (compassionate behavior)
Honesty (provision of accurate information)
Fairness (impartiality) 16

13. Cultural Differences in Values
Group
input is
important.
Decisions
should be
challenged.
Authority is a
right of
office and
rank
France
The Netherlands 17

14. Handling Cultural Differences
Learn about others’ values
Avoid prejudging
Operate legitimately within others ethical points of view
Avoid rationalizing
Refuse to violate fundamental values
Be open and above board 18

15. Ethical Behavior
Ethical Behavior - acting in ways consistent with one’s personal values and the commonly held values of the organization and society. 19

16. Qualities Required for Ethical Decision-making
The competence to identify ethical issues and evaluate
the consequences of alternative courses of action
The self-confidence to seek out different opinions about
the issue and decide what is right in terms of a situation
Tough-mindedness--the willingness to make decisions
when all that needs to be known cannot be known and when
the ethical issue has no established, unambiguous solution 20

17. Individual/Organizational Model of Ethical Behavior
Individual Influences
Value systems
Locus of control
Machiavellianism
Cognitive moral development
Ethical
Behavior
Organizational Influences
Codes of conduct
Norms
Modeling
Rewards and punishments 21

18. Values, Ethics & Ethical Behavior
Value Systems - systems of beliefs that affect what the individual defines as right, good, and fair
Ethics - reflects the way values are acted out
Ethical behavior - actions consistent with one’s values 22

19. Machiavellianism
Machiavellianism - A personality characteristic indicating one’s willingness to do whatever it takes to get one’s own way 24

20. Ethics
The system of rules that governs the ordering of values. Addresses such questions as:
What are the meanings of the ethical concepts of good and right?
How can a person reach a conclusion about an ethical dilemma?
Do ethical dilemmas have answers that would be universally accepted as right, proper, and appropriate?

21. Ethics
Universalism – States that individuals should uphold certain values, like honesty, regardless of the results. The important values are the ones society needs to function. (Rule based or deontological, an inherent ‘right’ apart from any consequences.)
Utilitarianism – States that the greatest good for society should be the overriding concern of decision makers. (Consequential, or teleological) emphasizes the results of behavior.)

22. Ethics
Justice Theories – State moral standards are based upon the primacy of a single value, which is justice. Everyone should act to ensure a more equitable distribution of benefits, for this promotes self-respect, essential for social cooperation.
The Four Way Test
1. Is it the TRUTH?
2. Is if FAIR to all concerned?
3. Will it build GOODWILL and better friendships?
4. Will it be BENEFICIAL to all concerned?

23. Moral Reasoning
The thinking processes involved in judgments about questions of right and wrong.
Kohlberg’s work (’63, ’75, ’81):
Divided moral development into three levels

24. Moral Reasoning Pre-conventional Conventional Post-Conventional
Judgment based solely on a person’s own needs and perceptions
Conventional
Expectations of society and law are taken into account
Post-Conventional
Judgment based on abstract, personal principles not necessarily defined by society’s laws.

25. Kohlberg’s Moral Dilemmas
Hypothetical situations in which no choice is clearly and indisputably right.

26. The Heinz Dilemma
A man’s wife is dying. There is one drug that could save her life, but it is very expensive, and the druggist who invented it will not sell it at a price low enough for the man to buy it. Finally, the man becomes desperate and considers stealing the drug for his wife. What should he do and why?

27. Kohlberg’s Work Stage 1 (Pre conventional) Stage 2 (Pre conventional)
Punishment-obedience orientation
Fear of authority and avoidance of punishment are reasons for behaving morally.
Stage 2 (Pre conventional)
Personal reward orientation
Satisfying personal needs determines moral choice.

28. Kohlberg’s Work Stage 3 (Conventional) Stage 4 (Conventional)
Good boy-nice girl orientation
Maintaining the affection and approval of friends and relatives motivates good behavior
Stage 4 (Conventional)
Law and order/authority orientation
A duty to uphold rules and laws for their own sake justifies moral conformity

29. Kohlberg’s Work Stage 5 (Post conventional)
Social contract orientation
We obey rules because they are necessary for social order, but rules can be changed if there were better alternatives
Stage 6 (Post conventional)
Morality of individual principles and conscience
Behavior which conforms to internal principles (justice and equality) and may sometimes violate society’s rules.

30. Carol Gilligan
“In a Different Voice”
1977, 1981

31. Moral reasoning is delimited by “
Moral reasoning is delimited by “...two moral perspectives that organize thinking in different ways.”
Men: define morality in terms of justice.
Women: less in terms of rights and more in terms of standards of responsibility and care.

32. Gilligan’s Perspective:
Males = typically a justice/rights orientation
Females = care response orientation
Orientations arise form rational experiences of inequality and attachment
Girls attached to and identify with mothers
Boys attached to mothers and identify with fathers

33. Believes that:
That response orientation is of a higher order than justice rights orientation
Because Kohlberg’s theory is hierarchical with justice/rights the basis--women would necessarily show a less reasoned perspective on his scales.
First studies of Kohlberg only conducted with men

34. The two perspectives are not opposite ends of a continuum, “
The two perspectives are not opposite ends of a continuum, “...with justice uncaring and caring unjust...”, but rather, “...a different method of organizing the basic elements of moral judgment: self, others, and the relationship between them.” (Gilligan, 1987, p.22)

35. “One moral perspective dominates psychological thinking and is embedded in the most widely used measures for measuring maturity of moral reasoning.” C. Gilligan, 1987, p.22

36. Gilligan’s Theory Based on two observational studies.
Study One: 25 college students
Study Two: 29 women considering abortion

37. Gilligan’s Research:
“shift[s] the focus of attention from ways people reason about hypothetical dilemmas to ways people construct moral conflicts and choice in their lives...and [makes] it possible to see what experiences people define in moral terms, and to explore the relationship between the understanding of moral problems and the reasoning strategies used and the actions taken in attempting to solve them.” Gilligan, 1987, p.21

38. Alternative Stage Sequence:
Three levels with transitional phases between each:
Level One: Complete concern for self (Individual Survival).
Transitional Phase: From self to care and concern for others.

39. Level Two
Level Two: Primary interest in the care of others (to gain their acceptance) (Self sacrifice and Social conformity).
Transitional Phase: awareness of self relative to developing relationships with others: responsibility toward their care and needs.

40. Level Three: Nonviolence and universal caring.
“articulates an ethic of responsibility that focuses on the actual consequences of choice,,,the criterion of adequacy or moral principles changes from objective truth to ‘best fit’, and can only be established within the context of the dilemma itself.”
Murphy and Gilligan, 1980, p.83

41. Good Points: Concept of care giving and nurturing
Relationship of self to others, responsibility
Empathy
Effect on environment

42. Subjects may try harder simply because they are in the control group.
Hawthorne Effect:
Subjects may try harder simply because they are in the control group.

43. Rosenthal Effect:
Researcher’s biases tend to sway the results to be what the researcher wants to find

44. “Rather than arguing over the extent to which sex bias is inherent in Kohlberg’s theory of moral development, it might be more appropriate to ask why the myth that males are more advanced in moral reasoning than females persists in light of such little evidence.”
Walker, 1984, p.688

45. Cognitive Moral Development
Cognitive Moral Development - The process of moving through stages of maturity in terms of making ethical decisions
Level l
Premoral
Level ll
Conventional
Level lll
Principled 25