1. Electrophilic Attack

2. Electrophilic Aromatic Substitution
Electrophile substitutes for a hydrogen on the benzene ring.

3. Mechanism
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4. Bromination of Benzene
Requires a stronger electrophile than Br2.
Use a strong Lewis acid catalyst, FeBr3.

5. Energy Diagram for Bromination
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6. Chlorination and Iodination
Chlorination is similar to bromination. Use AlCl3 as the Lewis acid catalyst.
Iodination requires an acidic oxidizing agent, like nitric acid, which oxidizes the iodine to an iodonium ion.

7. Nitration of Benzene
Use sulfuric acid with nitric acid to form the nitronium ion electrophile.
NO2+ then forms a
sigma complex with
benzene, loses H+ to
form nitrobenzene. =>

8. Sulfonation
Sulfur trioxide, SO3, in fuming sulfuric acid is the electrophile.

9. Nitration of Toluene
Toluene reacts 25 times faster than benzene. The methyl group is an activator.
The product mix contains mostly ortho and para substituted molecules.

10. Sigma Complex
Intermediate is more stable if nitration occurs at the ortho or para position.

11. Energy Diagram
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12. Friedel-Crafts Alkylation
Synthesis of alkyl benzenes from alkyl halides and a Lewis acid, usually AlCl3.
Reactions of alkyl halide with Lewis acid produces a carbocation which is the electrophile.
Other sources of carbocations: alkenes + HF or alcohols + BF3.

13. Examples of Carbocation Formation
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14. Formation of Alkyl Benzene- +

15. Limitations of Friedel-Crafts
Reaction fails if benzene has a substituent that is more deactivating than halogen.
Carbocations rearrange. Reaction of benzene with n-propyl chloride and AlCl3 produces isopropylbenzene.
The alkylbenzene product is more reactive than benzene, so polyalkylation occurs.

16. Friedel-Crafts Acylation
Acyl chloride is used in place of alkyl chloride.
The acylium ion intermediate is resonance stabilized and does not rearrange like a carbocation.
The product is a phenyl ketone that is less reactive than benzene.

17. Mechanism of Acylation

18. Clemmensen Reduction
Acylbenzenes can be converted to alkylbenzenes by treatment with aqueous HCl and amalgamated zinc.

19. Gatterman-Koch Formylation
Formyl chloride is unstable. Use a high pressure mixture of CO, HCl, and catalyst.
Product is benzaldehyde.

20. Activating, O-, P-Directing Substituents
Alkyl groups stabilize the sigma complex by induction, donating electron density through the sigma bond.
Substituents with a lone pair of electrons stabilize the sigma complex by resonance.

21. The Amino Group
Aniline reacts with bromine water (without a catalyst) to yield the tribromide. Sodium bicarbonate is added to neutralize the HBr that’s also formed.
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22. Summary of Activators

23. Deactivating Meta-Directing Substituents
Electrophilic substitution reactions for nitrobenzene are 100,000 times slower than for benzene.
The product mix contains mostly the meta isomer, only small amounts of the ortho and para isomers.
Meta-directors deactivate all positions on the ring, but the meta position is less deactivated.

24. Ortho Substitution on Nitrobenzene

25. Para Substitution on Nitrobenzene
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26. Meta Substitution on Nitrobenzene

27. Energy Diagram

28. Structure of Meta-Directing Deactivators
The atom attached to the aromatic ring will have a partial positive charge.
Electron density is withdrawn inductively along the sigma bond, so the ring is less electron-rich than benzene.

29. Summary of Deactivators

30. More Deactivators

31. Halobenzenes
Halogens are deactivating toward electrophilic substitution, but are ortho, para-directing!
Since halogens are very electronegative, they withdraw electron density from the ring inductively along the sigma bond.
But halogens have lone pairs of electrons that can stabilize the sigma complex by resonance.

32. Sigma Complex for Bromobenzene
Ortho and para attacks produce a bromonium ion and other resonance structures.
No bromonium ion possible with meta attack.

33. Energy Diagram

34. Summary of Directing Effects

35. Multiple Substituents
The most strongly activating substituent will determine the position of the next substitution. May have mixtures.

37. II. Electrophilic Addition
“Loose” p electrons are nucleophilic (Lewis bases),
react with electrophiles (Lewis acids).

38. II. Electrophilic Addition
A. Addition of hydrogen halides
(X = Cl, Br, I)
Reactivity: HI > HBr > HCl >> HF (stronger acid = better electrophile)

39. II. Electrophilic Addition
A. Addition of hydrogen halides
1. Markovnikov’s rule
In the addition of HX to an alkene, the H goes to the carbon with more H’s.
Question 6-2. Draw the products. Click on the arrow to check answers.
Check Answer

40. II. Electrophilic Addition
A. Addition of hydrogen halides
1. Markovnikov’s rule
In the addition of HX to an alkene, the H goes to the carbon with more H’s.
Answer 6-2.

41. II. Electrophilic Addition
A. Addition of hydrogen halides
2. mechanism
Mechanistic interpretation of Markovnikov’s rule: The reaction proceeds through the more stable carbocation intermediate.

42. II. Electrophilic Addition
A. Addition of hydrogen halides
2. mechanism
lower Ea 
faster rate of
formation