1. Chapter 10
Media

2. In this chapter you will examine the historical evolution and present status of relations between the government and the news media.

3. THEME A ‑ The History and Structure of the American News Media
JOURNALISM IN AMERICAN POLITICAL HISTORY
Early partisan sponsorship of the press.
Emergence of mass newspapers
National magazines of opinion
Electronic journalism

4. The party press Parties created and subsidized various newspapers
Circulation was small, newspapers expensive, advertisers few
Newspapers circulated among political and commercial elites

5. The popular press
Changes in society and technology made the press self-supporting and able to reach mass readership.
High-speed press
Telegraph
Associated Press, 1848; objective reporting
Urbanization allowed large numbers to support paper
Government Printing Office; end of subsidies in 1860
Influence of publishers, editors created partisan bias
"Yellow journalism" to attract readers
Hearst foments war against Spain
Emergence of a common national culture

6. Magazines of opinion Middle class favors new, progressive periodicals
Nation, Atlantic, Harper's in 1850s and 1860s on behalf of certain issues
McClure's, Scribner's, Cosmopolitan later on
Individual writers gain national followings through investigative reporting
Number of competing newspapers declines, as does sensationalism
Today the number of national magazines focusing on politics accounts for a small and declining fraction of magazines

7. Electronic journalism
Radio arrives in the 1920s, television in the 1940s
Politicians could address voters directly but people could easily ignore them
But fewer politicians could be covered
President routinely covered
Others must use bold tactics

8. Electronic journalism
Recent rise in the talk show as a political forum has increased politicians' access to electronic media
Big Three networks have made it harder for candidates by shortening sound bites
But politicians have more sources: cable, early morning news, news magazine shows
These new sources feature lengthy interviews
No research on consequences of two changes:
Recent access of politicians to electronic media
"Narrowcasting," which targets segmented audiences
Politicians continue to seek visuals even after they are elected

9. The Internet Ultimate free market in political news
Voters and political activists talk to one another

10. 1. Decline in the number of cities in which there are competing newspapers
2. An Orientation to the local market
3. The decentralization of the broadcasting industry
4. Three national TV networks, over 700 TV Stations, 11,000 cable systems, 10,000 radio stations
5. National media consisting of news magazines, TV networks, and newspapers such as the New York Times, the Washington Post, and the Wall Street Journal

11. Degree of competition Newspapers
Number of daily newspapers has declined significantly
Number of cities with multiple papers has declined
60 percent of cities had competing newspapers in 1900
Only 4 percent in 1972
Newspaper circulation has fallen since 1967
Most people now get most of their news from television

12. Degree of competition Radio and television
Intensely competitive, becoming more so
Composed mostly of locally owned and managed enterprises, unlike Europe
Orientation to local market
Limitations by FCC; widespread ownership created

13. The national media Existence somewhat offsets local orientation
Consists of
Wire services
National magazines
Television networks
Newspapers with national readerships

14. Significance of National Media
Washington officials follow it closely
Reporters and editors different from the local press
Better paid
From more prestigious universities
More liberal outlook
Do investigative or interpretive stories

15. THEME B ‑ Media Ownership and its Impact Upon the News
Ten business and financial corporations control the three major television and radio networks, 34 subsidiary television stations, 201 cable television systems, 62 radio stations, 20 record companies, 59 magazines including Time and Newsweek, 58 newspapers including the New York Times, the Washington Post, the Wall Street Journal, and the Los Angeles Times, 41 book publishers, and various motion picture companies like Columbia Pictures and Twentieth-Century Fox.

16. THEME B ‑ Media Ownership and its Impact Upon the News
Three-quarters of the major stockholders of ABC, CBS, and NBC are banks, such as Chase Manhattan, Morgan Guaranty Trust, Citibank and the Bank of America.
Ford Motor Co has directors on the corporate boards of the New York Times, the Washington Post and other newspapers.

17. THEME C ‑ Media Selection of and Bias in the News
Critical Thinking - How to Read A Newspaper
Are News Stories Slanted?

18. The Most Trusted Name in News
Don’t Believe
The Most Trusted Name in News
Fair and Balanced

19. Types of Stories Routine stories: public events regularly covered
Reported similarly by all media; opinions of journalists have least effect
Can be misreported: Tet offensive
Selected stories: public but not routinely covered
Selection involves perception of what is important
Liberal and conservative papers do different stories
Increasing in number; reflect views of press more than experts or public
Insider stories: not usually made public; motive problem

20. Are news stories slanted?
Most people believe media, especially television, from which they get most news
But the percentage that thinks the media is biased is increasing
Press itself thinks it is unbiased
Liberal bias of national media elite
Various factors influence how stories are written
Deadlines
Audience attraction
Fairness, truth imposed by professional norms
Reporters' and editors' beliefs

21. Why Do We Have So Many News Leaks?.
Journalist Opinion versus Public Opinion
The Political Attitudes of the Media Elite
Local versus national orientation of the media

22. Why do we have so many news leaks?
Constitution: separation of powers
Power is decentralized
Branches of government compete
Not illegal to print most secrets
Adversarial nature of the press since Watergate
Press and politicians distrust each other
Media are eager to embarrass officials
Competition for awards
Spurred by Irangate: arms for hostages

23. Why do we have so many news leaks?
Cynicism created era of attack journalism
Most people do not like this kind of news
Cynicism of media mirrors public's increasing cynicism of media
People believe media slant coverage
Public support for idea of licensing journalists or fines to discourage biased reporting
Public confidence in big business down and now media are big business
Drive for market share forces media to use theme of corruption

24. Sensationalism in the media
Prior to 1980, sexual escapades of political figures not reported
Since 1980, sex and politics extensively covered

25. Sensationalism in the media
Reasons for change
Sensationalism gets attention in a market of intense competition.
Sensational stories are often cheaper than expert analysis and/or investigation of stories about policy or substantive issues.
Journalists have become distrusting adversaries of government.
Journalists are much more likely to rely on unnamed sources today and, as a result, are more easily manipulated.

26. Roles of the Media
1. Gatekeeper
2. Scorekeeper
3. Watchdog

27. Gatekeeper: what is news, for how long
Auto safety
Water pollution
Prescription drugs
Crime rates

28. Scorekeeper: who is winning, losing
Attention to Iowa, New Hampshire
Gary Hart in 1984 and John McCain in 2000

29. Watchdog: investigate personalities and expose scandals
Hart's name, birth date, in 1984; Donna Rice in 1987
Watergate (Woodward and Bernstein)

30. THEME D ‑ Government Influence on the Media
THE EFFECTS OF THE MEDIA ON POLITICS
GOVERNMENT AND THE NEWS
1. Prominence of the President
2. Coverage of Congress

31. Prominence of the president
Theodore Roosevelt: systematic cultivation of the press
Franklin Roosevelt: press secretary a major instrument for cultivating press
Press secretary today: large staff, many functions
White House press corps is the focus of press secretary

32. Coverage of Congress
Never equal to that of president; members resentful
House quite restrictive
No cameras on the floor until 1978
Sometimes refused to permit coverage of committees
Gavel-to-gavel coverage of proceedings since 1979
Senate more open
Hearings since Kefauver; TV coverage of sessions in 1986
Incubator for presidential contenders through committee hearings

33. RULES GOVERNING THE MEDIA
1. Libel ‑ untrue and intended
2. Obscenity
3. Incitement

34. Further Controls for Radio and Television
1. Licensing‑every five years
2. The Fairness Doctrine - no longer in effect
3. The equal‑time provision

35. Regulating broadcasting
FCC licensing
Seven years for radio
Five years for television
Stations must serve "community needs"
Public service, other aspects can be regulated
Recent movement to deregulate
License renewal by postcard
No hearing unless opposed
Relaxation of rule enforcement

36. Regulating broadcasting
Radio broadcasting deregulated the most
Telecommunications Act of 1996 permits one company to own as many as eight stations in large markets (five in smaller ones)
Results:
Few large companies now own most of the big-market radio stations
Greater variety of opinion on radio
Other radio and television regulations
Equal time rule
Right-of-reply rule
Political editorializing rule
Fairness doctrine was abolished in 1987

37. Campaigning Equal time rule applies Efficiency in reaching voters
Equal access for all candidates
Rates no higher than least expensive commercial rate
Debates formerly had to include all candidates
Reagan-Carter debate sponsored by LWV as a "news event"
Now stations and networks can sponsor
Efficiency in reaching voters
Works well when market and district overlap
Fails when they are not aligned
More Senate than House candidates buy TV time

38. The effects of the media on politics
Studies on media influence on elections
Generally inconclusive, because of citizens'
Selective attention
Mental tune-out
Products can be sold more easily than candidates
Newspaper endorsements of candidates
Often of Republicans locally, whereas of Democrats nationally
But worth 5 percent of vote to endorsed Democrats

39. The effects of the media on politics
Major effect is on how politics is conducted, not how people vote
Conventions scheduled to accommodate television coverage
Candidates win party nomination via media exposure, for example, Estes Kefauver
Issues established by media attention
Environment
Consumer issues
Issues that are important to citizens similar to those in media
TV influences political agenda
But people less likely to take media cues on matters that affect them personally
Newspaper readers see bigger candidate differences than do TV viewers
TV news affects popularity of presidents; commentaries have short-term effect

40. Figure 10.1: Young People and Political News
Source: Los Angeles Times, Times Mirror Center for the People and the Press (June 28, 1990).

41. Self-Test

42. For more information about this topic, link to the Metropolitan Community College Political Science Web Site