1. Bayesian Wrap-Up (probably)

2. Administrivia Office hours tomorrow on schedule Woo hoo! Office hours today deferred... [sigh] 4:30-5:15

3. Retrospective/prospectiv e Last time: Maximum likelihood IID samples The MLE recipe Today: Finish up MLE recipe Bayesian posterior estimation

4. Exercise Find the maximum likelihood estimator of μ for the univariate Gaussian: Find the maximum likelihood estimator of β for the degenerate gamma distribution: Hint: consider the log of the likelihood fns in both cases

5. Solutions PDF for one data point: Joint likelihood of N data points:

6. Solutions Log-likelihood:

7. Solutions Log-likelihood: Differentiate w.r.t.  :

8. Solutions Log-likelihood: Differentiate w.r.t.  :

9. Solutions Log-likelihood: Differentiate w.r.t.  :

10. Solutions Log-likelihood: Differentiate w.r.t.  :

11. Example 1-d Gaussian w/ σ=1, unknown μ x 1 =4.35

12. Example 1-d Gaussian w/ σ=1, unknown μ x 1 =4.35

13. Example 1-d Gaussian w/ σ=1, unknown μ x 1 =4.35

14. Example 1-d Gaussian w/ σ=1, unknown μ x 1 =4.35

15. L(μ,x1)L(μ,x1)

16. Example 1-d Gaussian w/ σ=1, unknown μ x 1 =4.35, x 2 =3.12, x 3 =4.91

18. Solutions What about for the gamma PDF?

19. Putting the parts together [X,Y][X,Y] complete training data

20. Putting the parts together Assumed distribution family (hyp. space) w/ parameters Θ Parameters for class a: Specific PDF for class a

21. Putting the parts together

23. Gaussian Distributions

24. 5 minutes of math... Recall your friend the Gaussian PDF: I asserted that the d-dimensional form is: Let’s look at the parts...

25. 5 minutes of math...

26. Ok, but what do the parts mean? Mean vector, : mean of data along each dimension

27. 5 minutes of math... Covariance matrix Like variance, but describes spread of data

28. 5 minutes of math... Note: covariances on the diagonal of are same as standard variances on that dimension of data But what about skewed data?

29. 5 minutes of math... Off-diagonal covariances ( ) describe the pairwise variance How much x i changes as x j changes (on avg)

30. 5 minutes of math... Calculating from data: In practice: you want to measure the covariance between every pair of random variables (dimensions): Or, in linear algebra:

31. 5 minutes of math... Marginal probabilities If you have a joint PDF:... and want to know about the probability of just one RV (regardless of what happens to the others) Marginal PDF of or :

32. 5 minutes of math... Conditional probabilities Suppose you have a joint PDF, f(H,W) Now you get to see one of the values, e.g., H=“183cm” What’s your probability estimate of W, given this new knowledge?

33. 5 minutes of math... Conditional probabilities Suppose you have a joint PDF, f(H,W) Now you get to see one of the values, e.g., H=“183cm” What’s your probability estimate of A, given this new knowledge?

34. 5 minutes of math... From cond prob. rule, it’s 2 steps to Bayes’ rule: (Often helps algebraically to think of “given that” operator, “|”, as a division operation)

35. Everything’s random... Basic Bayesian viewpoint: Treat (almost) everything as a random variable Data/independent var: X vector Class/dependent var: Y Parameters: Θ E.g., mean, variance, correlations, multinomial params, etc. Use Bayes’ Rule to assess probabilities of classes Allows us to say: “It is is very unlikely that the mean height is 2 light years”

36. Uncertainty over params Maximum likelihood treats parameters as (unknown) constants Job is just to pick the constants so as to maximize data likelihood Fullblown Bayesian modeling treats params as random variables PDF over parameter variables tells us how certain/uncertain we are about the location of that parameter Also allows us to express prior beliefs (probabilities) about params