2. Syllables and Stress October 25, 2010

3. Practicalities Some homeworks to return… Review session on Wednesday. Mid-term on Friday. Note: transcriptions have been posted to the course web page. Let’s check out the Boston English sample.

4. Review: Suprasegmentals Last time, we learned that there were three kinds of languages: 1. Tone languages (Chinese, Navajo, Igbo) lexically determined tone on every syllable or word 2. Accentual languages (Japanese, Swedish) the location of an accent is lexically marked. 3. Stress languages (English, Russian) it’s complicated

5. What is Stress? Examples of stress in English: (V)vs.(N) Phonetically, stress is hard to define I.e., it is hard to measure. It seems to depend on an interaction of three quantifiable variables: Pitch Duration Loudness And also: quality

6. Loudness How do we measure how loud a sound is? Recall: one parameter of a sinewave is its amplitude. Peak amplitude (for sound) is the highest sound pressure reached during a particular wave cycle. peak-to-peak amplitude

7. Amplitude/Loudness Examples The higher the peak amplitude of a sinusoidal sound, the louder the sound seems to be.

8. RMS amplitude Peak-to-peak amplitude is sufficient for characterizing the loudness of sinewaves, but speech sounds are more complex. Another method of measuring loudness: root-mean-square (RMS) amplitude To calculate RMS amplitude: 1.Square the pressure value of the waveform at each point (sample) in the sound file 2.Average all the squared values 3.Take the square root of the average

9. RMS example A small sampling of a “sinewave” has the following pressure values: It looks like this (in Excel):

10. RMS calculations To calculate RMS amplitude for this sound, first square the values of each sample: Then average all the squared values (1 +.5 + 0 +.5 + 1 +.5 + 0 +.5 + 1) / 9 = 5/9 =.555 Then take the square root of the average RMS amplitude =.745

11. Another example What about the RMS amplitude of this sound wave? It looks like this (in Excel):

12. More Complex Waveforms The following waveforms all have the same peak-to-peak amplitude:

13. Intensity Two related concepts are acoustic power and intensity. Power is just the square of amplitude. P = A 2 The intensity of a sound is its power relative to the power of some reference sound. Intensity is usually measured in decibels (dB). Decibels is a measure of intensity with reference to the quietest sound human ears can hear.

14. Some Numbers The intensity of a sound x can be measured in bels, where a bel is defined as: = log 10 (x 2 / r 2 ) r 2 is the power of the reference sound x 2 is the power of sound x. A decibel is a tenth of a bel. Some typical decibel values: 30 dBQuiet library, soft whispers 40 dBLiving room, refrigerator 50 dBLight traffic, quiet office 60 dBNormal conversation

15. Numbers, continued Some typical decibel values: 70 dB Vacuum cleaner, hair dryer 80 dB City traffic, garbage disposal 90 dB Subway, motorcycle, lawn mower 100 dB Chain saw, pneumatic drill 120 dB Rock concert in front of speakers, thunderclap 130 dB Pain threshold 140 dB Gunshot blast, jet plane 180 dB Rocket launching

16. Intensity Interactions Perceived loudness depends on frequency, as well as amplitude. Mid-range frequencies sound louder than low or extremely high frequencies. 100 Hz 250 Hz 440 Hz 1000 Hz 4000 Hz 10000 Hz

17. An Interesting Fact Some vowels are louder than others dB of different vowels relative to (Fonagy, 1966): :0.0 [e] : -3.6 [o] : -7.2 [i] : -9.7 [u] : -12.3 Why?

18. Another Interesting Fact Some vowels are inherently longer than others. Data from Swedish (Elert, 1964): longshort high[i y u]140 msec95 mid155103 low164111 Why?

19. Sonority Loudness is also a highly context-dependent measure. Can vary wildly within speaker, from speaker to speaker, from room to room, and across speaking contexts. However, all things being equal, some speech sounds are louder than others. Course in Phonetics: “The sonority of a sound is its loudness relative to that of other sounds with the same length, stress and pitch.”

20. From Ladefoged

21. A Sonority Scale low vowels high vowels glides liquids nasals fricatives stops high sonority low sonority