1. O-linkage to GalNAc N-linkage to GlcNAc Posttranslation Modifications 1 Vitamin K-Dependent Modifications Vitamin K is a cofactor in the carboxylation of glutamine residues. The result of this type of reaction is a g- carboxyglutamate (called a gla residue). The formation of gla residues within several proteins of the blood clotting cascade is critical for their normal function. The presence of gla residues allows the protein to chelate calcium ions and thereby render an altered conformation and biological activity to the protein.

2. Sulfation Sulfate modification of proteins occurs at tyrosine residues such as in fibrinogen and in some secreted proteins (eg gastrin). The universal sulfate donor is 3'-phosphoadenosyl-5'- phosphosulphate (PAPS). Since sulfate is added permanently it is necessary for the biological activity and not used as a regulatory modification like that of tyrosine phosphorylation. Posttranslation Modifications 2 Selenium is a trace element and is found as a component of several prokaryotic and eukaryotic enzymes that are involved in redox reactions. The selenium in these selenoproteins is incorporated as a unique amino acid, selenocysteine, during translation. A particularly important eukaryotic selenoenzyme is glutathione peroxidase. This enzyme is required during the oxidation of glutathione by hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and organic hydroperoxides.

3. Phosphorylation Post-translational phosphorylation is one of the most common protein modifications that occurs in animal cells. The vast majority of phosphorylations occur as a mechanism to regulate the biological activity of a protein and as such are transient. In other words a phosphate (or more than one in many cases) is added and later removed. The enzymes that phosphorylate proteins are termed kinases and those that remove phosphates are termed phosphatases. ATP + protein phosphoprotein + ADP

4. In animal cells serine, threonine and tyrosine are the amino acids subject to phosphorylation. The largest group of kinases are those that phsophorylate either serines or threonines and as such are termed serine/threonine kinases. The ratio of phosphorylation of the three different amino acids is approximately 1000/100/1 for serine/threonine/tyrosine. Although the level of tyrosine phosphorylation is minor, the importance of phosphorylation of this amino acid is profound. As an example, the activity of numerous growth factor receptors is controlled by tyrosine phosphorylation.