1. Introduction to nanophotonics Alexey Belyanin Department of Physics, Texas A&M University

2. Outline What is nanophotonics? –motivation Principles of light guiding and confinement Photonic crystals Plasmonics Optical chips and integrated photonics Bio-nanophotonics –Biosensors, nanoshells, imaging, therapy Terahertz photonics Exotic stuff: negative index materials, quantum optics of semiconductor nanostructures, etc.

3. Nanophotonics: control of light at (sub-)wavelength scale near-IR: 700-2000 nm Optical communications window: 1300-1600 nm (Why?) Sub-wavelength scale = nanoscale for visible/near-IR light Violates fundamental laws of diffraction?? Not applicable to near field Not applicable to mixed photon-medium excitations: polaritons, plasmons

4. What kind of medium can carry optical frequencies? Air? Only within line of sight; High absorption and scattering Optical waveguides are necessary! Copper coaxial cable? High absorption, narrow bandwidth 300 MHz Glass? Window glass absorbs 90% of light after 1 m. Only 1% transmission after 2 meters. Extra-purity silica glass?!

5. Loss per km, dB Wavelength, nm Maximum tolerable loss Transmisson 95.5% of power after 1 km P = P(0) (0.955) N after N km P = 0.01 P(0) after 100 km: need amplifiers and repeaters Total bandwidth ~ 100 THz!! Loss in silica glasses What is dB? Increase by 3 dB corresponds to doubling of power

6. Optical fibers Made by drawing molten glass from a crucible 1965: Kao and Hockham proposed fibers for broadband communication 1970s: commercial methods of producing low-loss fibers by Corning and AT&T. 1990: single-mode fiber, capacity 622 Mbit/s Now: capacity ~ 1Tbit/s, data rate 10 Gbit/s

7. Fibers opened the flood gate Bandwidth 400 THz would allow 400 million channels with 2Mbits/sec download speed! Each person in the U.S. could have his own carrier frequency, e.g., 185,674,991,235,657 Hz.

8. In optical communications, information is transmitted over long distances along optical fibers However, if we want to modify, add/drop, split, or amplify signal, it needs to be first converted to electric current, and then converted back to photons Limitations of optical communications

9. Electronic circuits: 45 nm wires, 1 million transistors per mm 2 Computing is based on controlling transport and storage of electric charges Computing speed is limited by inertia of electrons

10. The interconnect bottleneck 10 9 devices per chip Closely spaced metal wires lead to RC delay Huge power dissipation due to Ohmic losses

11. Can electronic circuits and transmission channels be replaced by photonic ones?! Using photons as bits of information instead of electrons would revolutionize data processing, optical communications, and possibly computing What is wrong with using electric current instead of photonic beams? Good: electrons are small; devices are potentially scalable to a size of a single molecule Bad: electric current cannot be changed or modulated fast enough. Speed is limited to nanosecond scale by circuit inductance and capacitance. As a result, data rate is limited to a few Gb/s and transmission bandwidth to a few GHz. Photons travel much faster and don’t dissipate as much power

12. Futuristic silicon chip with monolithically integrated photonic and electronic circuits This hypothetic chip performs all-optical routing of mutliple N optical channels each supporting 10Gbps data stream. N channels are first demultiplexed in WDM photonic circuit, then rearranged and switched in optical cross-connect OXC module, and multiplexed back into another fiber with new headers in WDM multiplexer. Data packets are buffered in optical delay line if necessary. Channels are monitored with integrated Ge photodetector PD. CMOS logical circuits (VLSI) monitor the performance. Electrical pads are connecting the optoelectronic chip to other chips on a board via electrical signals. THE DREAM: could we replace electric signal processing by all-optical signal processing? IBM website

13. Or optical fiber cross-section However, dimension of optical “wires” is much larger than that of electric wires We need to confine light to at least 10- 20 times smaller size than the fiber diameter

14. What is the minimum confinement scale for light at a given wavelength? Wave equation Confinement in a metal box Total internal reflection

15. EM waves in a bulk isotropic medium  - relative dielectric permittivity; refractive index Phase velocity E H k Note: wavelength in a medium is n times shorter than in vacuum

16. How to confine light with transparent material?? Total internal reflection! Water: critical angle ~ 49 o

17. Total internal reflection n 1 > n 2

18. Dielectric waveguides n > n’ What is the minimum size of the mode confined by TIR?

19. Basic waveguide geometries

20. Dielectric waveguides are used in all semiconductor lasers

21. Silicon on insulator waveguides n c =1 n w =3.6 n s =1.5 For integrated photonic circuits we need to use silicon and CMOS-compatible technology

22. The dream No silicon lasers or amplifiers (why?) No silicon detectors at wavelengths 1.3-1.6  m (why?)

23. k1k1 k2k2 Why there are no silicon lasers k 1 = k 2 + k ph ; k ph << k 1,2 k 1 ~ k 2 Only vertical (in k-space) transitions are allowed SiliconGaAs Only direct gap semiconductors are optically active

24. SiO 2 doped with active erbium ions and with silicon nanocrystals From L. Pavesi talk 2005

25. Intel silicon photonic modulator Only simple devices have been built so far: Modulators, beam splitters, etc. Modulation of light using nonlinear optics: dependence of the refractive index from light intensity I (Kerr effect) By changing n 2, we can shift phases of the beams A and B with respect to each other: Beam A Beam B Possible uses: Rack-to-rack, Board-to-board, Chip-to-chip connections

26. Coupling light into a thin film waveguide can be a problem

27. Coupling a 5-  m diameter beam from fiber tip into 0.4-  m thin film (Intel) Tapered channel grating

28. Almeida. OL 2004 Guiding light in a low-index core?! Central region is 50 nm, but evanescent field still extends to about 500 nm

29. Evanescent field can be used for inter-mode coupling and for sensors Cornell group Nature 2004 Intel

30. Evanescent field sensors with substrate sensitized to a specific molecule

31. Adsorbed molecules change the excitation angle of EM mode

32. Can we do better than a thin film dielectric waveguide (mode size about 0.5  m, bending radius a few  m)? Photonic crystals! Periodic modulation of dielectric constant blocks the transmission of light at certain frequencies

33. Yablonovitch, Sci.Am. 2001 One dimensional photonic crystal: Bragg grating d Bragg reflection

34. Yablonovitch, Sci.Am. 2001

35. Photon momentum conservation d k in = k out + KgKg When K g = 2k in : incoming wave is reflected

36. Photonic band gap is formed n1n1 n2n2 Light is blocked at certain frequencies: PBG Group velocity tends to 0 at the edge of PBG -> enhancement of light intensity

37. Yablonovitch, Sci.Am. 2001

38. Photonic crystals Periodic variation of dielectric constant Length scale ~ Artificial structures Control EM wave propagation and density of states Periodic crystal lattice: Potential for electrons Length scale ~ 3-6 A Natural structures Control electron states and transport Semiconductors “Photonic crystals – semiconductors of light” From M. Florescu talk (JPL)

39. Natural opals Striking colors even in the absence of pigments From M. Florescu talk (JPL)

40. Yablonovitch, Sci.Am. 2001

41. Requirement: overlapping of frequency gaps along different directions  High ratio of dielectric indices  Same average optical path in different media  Dielectric networks should be connected J. Wijnhoven & W. Vos, Science (1998) S. Lin et al., Nature (1998) Woodpile structure Inverted Opals Artificial Photonic Crystals From M. Florescu talk

42. Yablonovitch, Sci.Am. 2001 Some 3D crystal designs based on diamond lattice By the way, why we don’t see photonic band gap in all crystals?

43. Photonic crystals can reflect light very efficiently. How to make them confine and guide light? Introduce a defect into the periodic structure!! Creates an allowed photon state in the photonic band gap Can be used as a cavity in lasers or as a microcavity for a “thresholdless” microlaser

44. 1D structure with defect: Vertical Cavity Surface-Emitting Laser (VCSEL) Edge-emitting laser VCSEL

45. 2D structure: photonic crystal fiber Extra tight mode confinement, high mode intensity, high nonlinearity First commercial all-optical interconnect based on PC fibers (Luxtera)

46. Photonic circuits? Intel Note T-intersections and tight bends, as in electric wires. You cannot achieve it in dielectric waveguides! From Florescu talk