Writing Reports and Proposals

Writing Reports and Proposals
Chapter 12 Writing Reports and Proposals Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

Learning Objectives Explain how to adapt to your audiences when writing reports and proposals and describe the choices involved in drafting report and proposal content Identify five characteristics of effective writing in online reports and explain how to adapt your writing approach for wikis LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter, you will be able to do the following: Explain how to adapt to your audiences when writing reports and proposals, and describe the choices involved in drafting report and proposal content Identify five characteristics of effective writing in online reports, and explain how to adapt your writing approach for wikis Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

Learning Objectives Discuss six principles of graphic design and identify the most common types of visuals used to present data, information, concepts, and ideas Explain how to integrate visuals with text effectively and how to verify the quality of your visuals LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter, you will be able to do the following: 3. Discuss six principles of graphic design and identify the most common types of visuals used to present data, information, concepts, and ideas 4. Explain how to integrate visuals with text effectively and how to verify the quality of your visuals Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

Composing Reports and Proposals: Adapting to Your Audience
Successful report writers adapt to their intended audiences by being sensitive to audience needs, building strong relationships with the audience, and controlling style and tone. Reports and proposals that are highly technical, complex, or lengthy can put heavy demands on your readers, so the “you” attitude is especially important with these long messages. Be sure to plan how you will adapt your style and your language to reflect the image of your organization. If you know your readers reasonably well and your report is likely to meet with their approval, you can adopt a fairly informal tone—provided that doing so is acceptable in the situation and in your company’s culture. A more formal tone is usually appropriate for longer reports, especially those dealing with controversial or complex information. You will also want to use a more formal tone when your report will be sent to other parts of the organization or to outsiders, such as customers, suppliers, or members of the community. Communicating with people in other cultures often calls for more formality for two reasons. First, the business environment outside the United States tends to be more formal in general. Second, the things you do to make a document informal (such as using humor and idiomatic language) tend to translate poorly or not at all from one culture to another, so you risk offending or confusing your readers. Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

Drafting Report Content
Your credibility and future success are on the line with every business report you write. You will create more successful reports if your content has the following characteristics: Accuracy. Information presented in a report must be factual, correct, and error free. When writing reports, be sure to double-check your facts and references, in addition to checking for typos. Completeness. To help colleagues or supervisors make a decision, include all the information they will need to understand the situation, problem, or proposal. Support all key assertions using illustrations, explanations, and facts. Tell your readers what they need to know, in a way that meets their needs. Balance. Present all sides of the issue fairly, and include all necessary information. Omitting relevant information or facts can make your report biased. Clarity and logic. Clear sentence structure and good transitions are essential. Identify the ideas that belong together, and organize them in a way that is easy to understand. Proper documentation. When using primary and secondary sources for your report or proposal, document and give credit to your sources. Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

Opportunity or Purpose
Report Introduction Authorization Scope of Coverage Sources and Methods Limitations Opportunity or Purpose Background Terms and Definitions Report Organization The specific elements you should include in an introduction depend on the nature and length of the report, the circumstances in which you are writing it, and your relationship with the audience. An introduction could contain any or all of the following elements: Authorization. When, how, and by whom the report was authorized, who wrote it, and when it was submitted. Problem/opportunity/purpose. The reason for the report’s existence and what it is supposed to accomplish. Scope. What is and what is not going to be covered in the report. The scope indicates the report’s size and complexity; it also helps with the critical job of setting the audience’s expectations. Background. The conditions or factors that led up to the report. This section enables readers to understand how the problem, situation, or opportunity developed and what has been done about it so far. Sources and methods. The primary and secondary sources of information used. Definitions. A list of terms that might be unfamiliar to your audience, along with brief definitions. Limitations. This section does not excuse a lack of effort or poor performance; however, it should present factors that were beyond your control. Report organization. What topics are covered and in what order, along with a rationale for using a given organizational scheme, if appropriate. Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

Report Body Explanations of problem or opportunity
Facts, statistics, and trends Results of studies or investigations Discussion and analysis of potential actions Advantages, disadvantages, costs, and benefits The report’s body presents, analyzes, and interprets the information gathered during your investigation and supports the recommendations or conclusions discussed in your document (see Figure 12.2). As with the introduction, the body of your report can require some tough decisions about which elements to include and how much detail to offer. Here again, your decisions depend on many variables, including the needs of your audience. Provide only enough detail in the body to support your conclusions and recommendations. The topics commonly covered in a report body include ● Explanations of a problem or opportunity ● Facts, statistical evidence, and trends ● Results of studies or investigations ● Discussion and analyses of potential courses of action ● Advantages, disadvantages, costs, and benefits of a particular course of action Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

Report Body Procedures or steps in a process Methods and approaches
Criteria for evaluating options Conclusions and recommendations Support for conclusions and recommendations The topics commonly covered in a report body also include ● Procedures or steps in a process ● Methods and approaches ● Criteria for evaluating alternatives and options ● Conclusions and recommendations ● Supporting reasons for conclusions or recommendations Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

Report Close A report’s close has three important functions:
● Emphasizes the main points of the message ● Summarizes the benefits to the reader if the document suggests a change or some other course of action ● Brings all the action items together in one place and gives the details about who should do what, when, where, and how Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

Problem Solving Report (Excerpt) Focus on Recommendations
TO: Board of Directors, Executive Committee members FROM: Alycia Jenn, Business Development Manager DATE: July 7, 2014 SUBJECT: Website expansion In response to your request, my staff and I investigated the potential for expanding our website from its current "brochureware" status (in which we promote our company and its products but don't provide any way to place orders online) to full e-commerce capability (including placing orders and checking on order delivery status). After analyzing the behavior of our customers and major competitors and studying the overall development of electronic retailing, we have three recommendations: 1. We should expand our online presence from "brochureware" to e-commerce capability within the next 6 months. 2. We should engage a firm that specializes in online retailing to design and develop the new e-commerce capabilities. 3. We must take care to integrate online retailing with our store-based and mail-order operations. Figure 12.2 Effective Problem-Solving Report Focusing on Recommendations In this report recommending that her firm expand its website to full e-commerce capability, the writer uses the body of her report to provide enough information to support her argument, without burdening her high-level readership with a lot of tactical details. Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

Drafting Proposal Content
Introduction Body Closing Attention Interest Desire Action Solicited Proposal Unsolicited Like reports, proposals have an introduction, a body, and a close. The content for each section is governed by many variables—the most important being the source of your proposal. If your proposal is unsolicited, you have some latitude in the scope and organization of content. However, the scope and organization of a solicited proposal are usually governed by the request for proposal (RFP). The general purpose of any proposal is to persuade readers to do something, such as purchase goods or services, fund a project, or implement a program. Thus, your writing approach for a proposal is similar to that used for persuasive sales messages (see Chapter 10). As with any persuasive message, you can use the AIDA model to gain attention, build interest, create desire, and motivate action (of course, you may need to adapt this model if you are responding to a request for proposal). Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

Guiding the Readers Previews and Reviews Transitional Devices Headings
and Links Structure Key Points Consistency Words Phrases Paragraphs Introductions Overviews Summaries Good writers give their readers a preview of a report’s structure, clarifying how the various parts are related. Three tools are useful for giving readers a sense of the overall structure of your document and for keeping them on track: headings and links, smooth transitions, and previews and reviews. Headings and links help readers follow the structure of your document and pick up key points of your message from the headings and subheadings. Follow a simple, consistent arrangement that clearly distinguishes levels. Transitions are words or phrases that tie ideas together and show how one thought is related to another. In a long report, an entire paragraph might be used to highlight transitions from one section to the next. Previews and reviews introduce important or complex topics by helping readers get ready for new information. Review sections come after a body of material and summarize key points to help readers absorb that material. Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

Technology for Reports and Proposals
Embedded and Linked Documents Electronic Forms Electronic Documents Multimedia Documents Proposal-Writing Software Writing lengthy reports and proposals can be a huge task, so be sure to take advantage of technological tools to help throughout the process. Look for ways to use technology to reduce the mechanical work involved in writing long reports. Be sure to explore the advantages of these capabilities: Linked and embedded documents. Reports and proposals often include graphics, spreadsheets, databases, and other elements created in a variety of software packages. When you do combine files this way, make sure you know how the software handles the files, or else you may receive some unpleasant surprises. Electronic forms. For recurring forms such as sales reports and compliance reports, consider creating a word processor file that combines boilerplate text for material that does not change from report to report. Electronic documents. Portable Document Format (PDF) files have become a universal replacement for printed reports and proposals. Multimedia documents. When the written word is not enough, combine your report with video clips, animation, presentation software slides, and other elements. Proposal-writing software. This software can automatically personalize proposals, ensure proper structure, and organize storage of all boilerplate text. It can also scan RFPs to identify questions or requirements and provide answers from a centralized knowledge base. Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

Drafting Online Content
Build trust with intended audiences Adapt content for global audience Use the inverted pyramid style Use a concise, skimmable format Compose effective links Five key aspects of web writing can improve your online content: Take special care to build trust with your intended audiences, since careful readers can be skeptical of online content. Make sure your content is accurate, current, complete, and authoritative. Adapt your content for a global audience. This can be a complicated and expensive effort. Some companies compromise by localizing the homepage and key secondary pages, while keeping more detailed content in its original language. Whenever you can, use the inverted pyramid style. Cover the most important information briefly at first and then gradually reveal successive layers of detail, letting readers choose to see those additional layers if they want to. Present your information in a concise, skimmable format. Effective websites use a variety of means to help readers skim pages quickly; including listed items, informative headings, and helpful summaries. Compose effective links, since they serve for both site navigation and content skimming. Above all else, clearly identify where a link will take readers. Include a brief summary explaining what readers will experience if they click on the link. Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

Collaborating on Wikis
Forgo traditional expectations Edit and improve each other’s work Use templates and formatting options Apply the appropriate tools Practice in the “sandbox” Using wikis is a great way for teams and other groups to collaborate on writing projects, from brief articles to long reports and reference works. The benefits of wikis are compelling, but they do require a unique approach to writing. To be a valuable wiki contributor, keep these points in mind: Writers need to let go of traditional expectations of authorship, including individual recognition and control. The value of a wiki stems from the collective insight of all its contributors. Team members sometimes need to be encouraged to edit and improve each other’s work. Using page templates and other formatting options can help to ensure that your content fits the same style as the rest of the wiki. Use the separate editing and discussion capabilities appropriately. New users should take advantage of the sandbox, a “safe,” non-published section of the wiki where team members can practice editing and writing. Wikis usually have guidelines to help new contributors integrate their work into the group’s ongoing effort. Be sure to read and understand these guidelines, and do not be afraid to ask for help. Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

Collaborating on Wikis Wikis at IBM
Figure 12.4 Wikis at IBM Computer giant IBM uses hundreds of wikis to facilitate communication with internal and external audiences. Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

Understanding Visual Design Principles
Visual literacy is the ability to create visual images and interpret visual messages. It has become an essential business skill. Even if you have no formal training in design, being aware of the following six principles will help you be a more effective visual communicator: Consistency. Audiences view a series of visuals as a whole and assume that design elements will be consistent from one page to the next. You can achieve visual parallelism through the consistent use of color, shape, size, texture, position, scale, or typeface. Contrast. Use visual choices such as size and color to emphasize contrasting quantities or ideas. To emphasize similarities, on the other hand, make the visual differences more subtle. Balance. Images that appear to be out of balance can be unsettling. Balance can be formal, in which the elements in the images are arranged symmetrically around a central point or axis. Balance can also be informal, in which stronger and weaker elements are arranged in such a way that achieves an overall effect of balance. Emphasis. Audiences usually assume that the dominant element in a design is the most important, so make sure that the visually dominant element really does represent the most important information. You can do this through color, position, size, or placement, for instance. Convention. Visual communication is guided by generally accepted rules or conventions, just as written communication is guided by spelling, grammar, punctuation, and usage conventions. Many conventions are so ingrained in a given culture that people do not even realize they are following them. Simplicity. Keep business communication visuals simple. Remember that you are conveying information, not creating artwork. Furthermore, avoid chartjunk, decorative elements that clutter documents without adding any relevant information. Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

When to Use Visuals Purpose and Application
To clarify: Support text descriptions of “graphic” topics: quantitative or numeric information, explanations of trends, descriptions. To simplify: Divide complicated descriptions into components that can be depicted with conceptual models, flowcharts, organization charts, or diagrams. To emphasize: Call attention to particularly important points by illustrating them with line, bar, and pie charts. To summarize: Review major points in the narrative by providing a chart or table that sums up the data. Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

Selecting the Right Type of Visual
Communication Challenge Effective Visual Choice To present individual, exact values To show trends or relationships with variables To compare data Show frequency or distribution of parts to a whole Table Line or Bar Chart Pie Chart Figure 12.6 Selecting the Best Visual For each point you want to illustrate, make sure to choose the most effective type of visual. Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

The Parts of a Table Subhead Row head Total Multicolumn Head* XXX XX
Source: (In the same format as a text footnote). *Footnote (for explanation of elements in the table). Subhead Row head Total Multicolumn Head* XXX XX Single-Column Head When you have to present detailed, specific information, choose a table, a systematic arrangement of data in columns and rows. Tables are ideal when the audience needs information that would be either difficult or tedious to handle in the main text. Most tables contain the standard parts illustrated above. Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

Using Line and Surface Charts
Relationships Trends Variables 2011 2010 2008 2009 70% 60% 50% 40% A line chart, or line graph, is commonly used to show trends over time or the relationship of two or more variables. In line charts showing trends, the vertical (y-axis) shows the amount, and the horizontal (x-axis) shows the time or other quantity against which the amount is being measured. Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

Average Kiln Temps If you need to compare two or more sets of data, you can plot them on the same line chart for instant visual comparison. Two or three lines on a single chart are usually easy to read, but beyond that, things can get confusing, particularly if the lines cross. Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

CommuniCo Staff Computer Skills
Bar charts can appear in various forms. The singular bar chart above represents the various computer skills of CommuniCo’s staff. Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

CommuniCo Preferred Communication Media
This segmented bar chart shows the preferred communication media in CommuniCo’s sales, engineering, and administrative departments. Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

Percentage of Time Spent Online By Age Group
The pie chart above represents the percentage of time spent online by various age groups. Notice that the largest slice starts at 12:00 o’clock. Different colors are used to represent the various age groups. Finally, percentages represent the values of the segments (for a total of 100%). Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

Presenting Information, Concepts, and Ideas
Flow Charts Organization Charts Drawings Maps Photographs Diagrams Video Animation In addition to facts and figures, you need to present other types of information, from spatial relationships (such as the floor plan for a new office building) to abstract ideas (such as progress or competition). The most common types of visuals for these applications include flowcharts, organization charts, maps, drawings, diagrams, photographs, animation, and video. Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

Flowchart Receive Invoice No Yes Verify with requesting department
Valid Order? Valid Order? No Yes Verify with requesting department A flow chart illustrates a sequence of events from start to finish; it is indispensable when illustrating processes, procedures, and sequential relationships. For general business purposes, you do not need to be too concerned about the specific shapes in a flowchart, as long as they are used consistently. However, you should be aware of the formal flowchart “language,” in which each shape has a specific meaning (diamonds are decision points, rectangles are process steps, and so on). Accepted? Return invoice to vendor Submit to Accounts Payable No Yes Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

The Chain of Command As the name implies, an organization chart illustrates the positions, units, or functions of an organization and the way they interrelate. An organization’s normal communication channels are almost impossible to describe without the benefit of a chart like the one in this slide. These charts are not limited to organization structures, of course; as you saw Chapter 4, they can also be used to outline messages. Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

Data Visualization Figure 12.12 Data Visualization
The range of data visualization displays is virtually endless; here are a few of the many different ways to display complex sets of data. Sources: (a) Copyright © 2011 by TouchGraph, LLC.; (b) Copyright © 2013 by the Gephi Consortium. Used by permission.; (c) Copyright © 2013 by TagCrowd.com. Used by permission of Daniel Steinbock, Ph.D.; (d) Used with permission from Microsoft®. Microsoft Dynamics NAV 2009 can be accessed at Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

Geographic Information Systems
Figure Geographic Information Systems Businesses use geographic information systems (GIS) in a variety of ways. By overlaying maps and aerial or satellite imagery with descriptive data, companies can use these displays for such purposes as planning sales campaigns, optimizing transportation routing, and selecting retail or production sites. Source: Copyright © 2013 Esri, DigitalGlobe, GeoEye, i-cubed, USDA, USGS, AEX, Getmapping, Aerogrid, IGN, IGP, swisstopo, and the GIS User Community. All rights reserved. Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

Drawings, Diagrams and Photographs
Diagram or photograph Learn basic image-processing Photos should have communication value Be aware of copyright and model permissions The opportunities to use drawings, diagrams, and photographs are virtually endless. Simple drawings can show the network of suppliers in an industry, the flow of funds through a company, or the process for completing the payroll each week. More complex diagrams, including interactive online diagrams (see Figure on the next page), can convey technical topics such as the operation of a machine or repair procedures. Word processors and presentation software now offer fairly advanced drawing capabilities, but for more precise and professional illustrations, you may need a specialized package such as Adobe Illustrator or SketchUp. Photographs offer both functional and decorative value, and nothing can top a photograph when you need to show exact appearances. Because audiences expect photographs to show literal visual truths, you must take care when using image-processing tools such as Adobe Photoshop. To use photographs successfully, consider these guidelines: Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

Infographics Figure 12.16 Infographics
Roughly speaking, infographics can be divided into simple presentations of data (Figure 12.16a) and visual narratives (Figure 12.16b) that use the full power of the medium to tell stories or illustrate processes. Source: “Power Users Shall Inherit the Internet.” Copyright © 2012 Demandforce, Inc. in partnership with Column Five Media. Reprinted with permission. Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

Using Animation and Video
Computer animation and video are among the most specialized forms of business visuals. You will not encounter many situations that require them, but when they are appropriate and done well, they offer unparalleled visual impact. At a simple level, you can animate shapes and text within Microsoft PowerPoint. At a more sophisticated level, software such as Adobe Flash enables the creation of multimedia files that include computer animation, digital video, and other elements. A wide variety of tools are also available for digital video production. Product demonstrations, company overviews, promotional presentations, and training seminars are among the most popular applications of business video. With a little creativity, you can use video in everything from recruiting to contests that get customers or employees involved in the promotional process. Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

Producing and Integrating Visuals
Emphasize Key Points Reference Visuals Position Visuals Titles, Captions, Legends Balance Illustrations & Words Facilitate Easy Review Titles, captions, and legends provide more opportunities to connect your visual and textual messages. A title is similar to a subheading, providing a short description that identifies the content and purpose of the visual, along with whatever label and number you’re using to refer to the visual. Readers should be able to grasp the point of a visual without digging into the surrounding text. For instance, a title that says simply “Refineries” doesn’t say much at all. A descriptive title that identifies the topic of the illustration, such as “Relationship Between Petroleum Demand and Refinery Capacity in the United States” provides a better idea of what the chart is all about. An informative title tells even more by calling attention to the conclusion that ought to be drawn from the data, such as “Refinery Capacity Declines as Petroleum Demand Continues to Grow.” A caption usually offers additional discussion of the visual’s content and can be several sentences long, if appropriate. Captions can also alert readers that additional discussion is available in the accompanying text. Titles usually appear above visuals, and captions appear below, but effective designs can place these two elements in other positions. Sometimes titles and captions are combined in a single block of text as well. A legend helps readers decode the visual by explaining what various colors, symbols, or other design choices mean. Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

Verifying Visual Quality
Visuals have a particularly strong impact on your readers and on their perceptions of you and your work, so you must verify their quality. Take a few extra minutes to make sure that your visuals are absolutely accurate, properly documented, and honest. Is the visual accurate? Be sure to check visuals for mistakes, such as typographical errors, inconsistent color treatment, confusing or undocumented symbols, and misaligned elements. Also verify that the information shown in the visuals coincides with the information in the text. Is the visual properly documented? As with the textual elements in your reports and presentations, visuals based on other people’s research, information, and ideas require full citation. Is the visual honest? Make sure that your visuals do not hide information the audience needs, imply conclusions that your information does not support, or play on audience emotions in manipulative or coercive ways. Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

Summary of Objectives This concludes the PowerPoint presentation on Chapter 12, “Writing Reports and Proposals.” During this presentation, we have accomplished the following learning objectives: Explained how to adapt to your audiences when writing reports and proposals, and described the choices involved in drafting report and proposal content Identified five characteristics of effective writing in online reports, and explained how to adapt your writing approach for wikis Discussed six principles of graphic design, and identified the most common types of visuals used to present data, information, concepts, and ideas Explained how to integrate visuals with text effectively and how to verify the quality of your visuals For more information about these topics, refer to Chapter 12 in Excellence in Business Communication. Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

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