1. International Business Environments & Operations
Daniels ● Radebaugh ● Sullivan
International Business Environments and Operations 14e by Daniels, Radebaugh, and Sullivan
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2. Governmental Influence on Trade
Chapter 7
Governmental Influence on Trade
Chapter 7: Governmental Influence on Trade
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Learning Objectives
To explain the rationales for governmental policies that enhance and restrict trade
To show the effects of pressure groups on trade policies
To describe the potential and actual effects of governmental intervention on the free flow of trade
To illustrate the major means by which trade is restricted and regulated
To demonstrate the business uncertainties and business opportunities created by governmental trade policies
The Learning Objectives for this chapter are
To explain the rationales for governmental policies that enhance and restrict trade
To show the effects of pressure groups on trade policies
To describe the potential and actual effects of governmental intervention on the free flow of trade
To illustrate the major means by which trade is restricted and regulated
To demonstrate the business uncertainties and business opportunities created by governmental trade policies
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Introduction
Protectionism - policies that
affect the ability of foreign producers to compete in your home market
limit or enhance your company’s ability to sell abroad or acquire needed foreign supplies
While free trade is beneficial, in reality all countries regulate the flow of goods and services across their borders. Governments want to help companies that are struggling, but it’s difficult to do so without hurting those that are doing well.
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5. Introduction
Physical and Social Factors Affecting the Flow of Goods and Services
This Figure shows the physical and social factors that affect the flow of goods and services.
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6. Conflicting Results of Trade Policies
Governments intervene in trade to achieve economic, social, and political goals
Policymakers are challenged by
conflicting objectives
interest groups
Government officials use trade policy to try to achieve economic, social, and political goals. However, their efforts are hampered by uncertain and conflicting policy outcomes, as well as the goals of special interest groups.
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7. The Role of Stakeholders
Proposed policies on trade spark debate
Stakeholders include
Workers
Owners
Suppliers
Local politicians
Consumers usually don’t care
Proposed government policies often spark fierce debate among those who could be affected. Those who are most directly affected tend to be loudest in voicing their concerns.
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8. Economic Rationales for Government Intervention
Learning Objective 1:
To explain the rationales for governmental policies that enhance and restrict trade
Learning Objective 1: To explain the rationales for governmental policies that enhance and restrict trade.
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9. Economic Rationales for Government Intervention
Why Governments Intervene in Trade
This Table shows the reasons for government intervention in trade. Notice that there are both economic and noneconomic reasons for intervention.
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10. Fighting Unemployment
Learning Objective 2:
To show the effects of pressure groups on trade policies
Learning Objective 2: To show the effects of pressure groups on trade policies.
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11. Fighting Unemployment
The unemployed are the most effective pressure group
But, import restrictions
can lead to retaliation by other countries
are less likely retaliated against effectively by small economies
are less likely to be met with retaliation if implemented by small economies
may decrease export jobs because of price increases for components
may decrease export jobs because of lower incomes abroad
Unemployed people are one of the most effective pressure groups for restrictions on imports. But, trying to fix employment problems using trade policy can create new challenges.
Costs that are often associated with import restrictions include higher prices and higher taxes. Governments must balance the potential for these costs with the benefits of creating new jobs. Fiscal and monetary policies may be more effective at correcting unemployment problems.
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12. Protecting ‘Infant Industries’
Learning Objective 3:
To describe the potential and actual effects of governmental intervention on the free flow of trade
Learning Objective 3: To describe the potential and actual effects of governmental intervention on the free flow of trade.
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13. Protecting ‘Infant Industries’
The infant industry argument
government protection of import competition is necessary to help certain industries evolve from high-cost to low-cost production
Used by developing countries
According to the infant industry argument, production becomes more competitive over time because of increased economies of scale and greater work efficiency. Therefore, if an emerging industry is protected during its infancy it has a greater chance for success.
Many developing countries use this argument as a rationale for implementing protectionist policies.
Keep in mind though that production costs may never fall far enough to make an industry competitive making it important to clearly identify those industries with the greatest chance for success. Even then, because of the costs involved, protectionism may not be automatic.
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14. Developing an Industrial Base
Countries promote industrialization because it
brings faster growth than agriculture
brings in investment funds
diversifies the economy
brings more income than primary products do
reduces imports and promotes exports
helps the nation-building process
Generally, countries with higher per capita GDP have larger manufacturing bases. So, countries that are trying to develop an industrial base may intervene in trade flows. The United States for example, has restricted imports to grow its manufacturing base.
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15. Developing an Industrial Base
The industrialization argument
unregulated imports of lower priced products prevents the development of a domestic industry
Assumptions
Surplus Workers
Investment Inflows
Diversification
Growth in Manufactured Goods
Import Substitution and Export-Led Development
Nation Building
According to the industrialization argument, the development of a domestic industry is hampered by unregulated imports of lower-priced products. This argument is based on several assumptions.
Many people can shift out of agriculture without much effect on total output. However, it’s important to keep in mind that when this type of shift occurs, not only does demand on social and political services in cities increase, development possibilities in the agricultural sector could also be overlooked.
Inward investment could occur if import restrictions keep out foreign-made goods. Moreover, developing an industrialization basis is an important step in diversifying an economy.
Countries may also seek to develop their industrial base in order to improve their terms of trade – the prices of agricultural commodities and raw materials has historically grown more slowly than prices of manufactured goods.
Finally, countries like Taiwan that have shown tremendous growth have followed policies known as export led development making protectionism attractive. Moreover, industrialization and the nation-building process seem to be linked. Industrialization emphasizes products to sell domestically or products to export.
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16. Economic Relationships With Other Countries
Trade controls can be used
to improve the balance of payments
to gain fair access to foreign markets
comparable access argument
as a bargaining tool
believability and importance
to control prices
dumping
optimum-tariff theory
Countries can use trade controls to improve their relationships with other countries. In addition to using trade restrictions to improve the nation’s balance of payments, governments may also intervene in trade to ensure that domestic producers have the same access to other markets as foreign companies have to their markets, to encourage countries to change their policies, and to control prices.
Keep in mind that governments have to be careful when using trade restrictions to control prices. If prices get too high, it could result in smuggling or substitution. Similarly, if prices get too low, there’s an incentive to produce less or to shift foreign production and sales.
Trade restrictions can be used to prevent a practice known as dumping which involves exporting below cost or below home country prices, and to get foreign producers to lower their prices. According to the optimum tariff theory, a foreign producer will lower its prices if the importing company places a tax on its products.
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17. Noneconomic Rationales for Government Intervention
Noneconomic rationales include
Maintaining essential industries
Promoting acceptable practices abroad
Maintaining or extending spheres of influence
Preserving national culture
Sometimes governments may intervene in trade for political reasons including maintaining essential industries, promoting acceptable practices abroad, maintaining or extending spheres of influence, or preserving national culture.
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18. Maintaining Essential Industries
The essential industry argument
protect essential industries so the country is not dependent on foreign supplies during war
Countries must
determine which industries are essential
consider costs and alternatives
consider political consequences
The essential industry argument of protecting certain industries to avoid dependency on foreign supplies can be appealing, but keep in mind that in theory almost any product could be deemed essential.
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19. Promoting Acceptable Practices Abroad
Import trade controls can be used
to promote changes in foreign countries’ political policies or capabilities
as a foreign policy weapon
to pressure governments to alter their stances on a variety of issues
human rights
environmental protection
Governments can use trade policy to encourage or discourage certain types of behavior by other countries.
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20. Maintaining or Extending Spheres of Influence
Governments provide assistance and encourage imports from countries that join a political alliance or vote a preferred way within international bodies
Cotonou Agreement
A country’s trade restrictions may coerce governments to follow certain political actions or punish companies whose governments do not
Trade restrictions can also be used to support a country’s sphere of influence.
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21. Preserving National Culture
In order to preserve national culture, countries
limit foreign products and services in certain sectors
Canada’s cultural sovereignty
prohibit exports of art and historical items deemed important to national heritage
Sustaining the collective identity that sets their citizens apart from those in other nations, is another reason why countries intervene in trade flows. Rice imports were strictly limited for years in Japan for example, because rice farming was considered to be a historically cohesive force in the country.
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22. Instruments of Trade Control
Learning Objective 4:
To illustrate the major means by which trade is restricted and regulated
Learning Objective 4: To illustrate the major means by which trade is restricted and regulated.
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23. Instruments of Trade Control
Two types of trade controls
those that indirectly affect the amount traded by directly influencing prices of exports or imports
those that directly limit the amount of a good that can be traded
There are many different ways to intervene in trade flows. It’s important to choose the right instrument to achieve a particular objective.
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Tariffs
Tariffs are also known as duties
refer to a government levied tax on goods shipped internationally
Tariffs may be levied
on goods entering, leaving, or passing through a country
for protection or revenue
on a per unit basis or a value basis
export tariffs
transit tariffs
import tariffs
Tariffs directly influence prices, while nontariff barriers affect either price or quantity. When a country assesses a tariff on a per unit basis it’s applying a specific duty. A tariff that’s assessed as a percentage of the item’s value is an ad valorem tariff. A compound duty is due when both a specific and an ad valorem tariff are assessed.
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25. Nontariff Barriers: Direct Price Influencers
Subsidies
direct assistance to companies to make them more competitive
agricultural subsidies
overcoming market imperfections
valuation problems
Nontariff barriers can affect either quantity sold or price. Subsidies are one of the most common ways to influence price.
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26. Nontariff Barriers: Direct Price Influencers
Aid and loans
tied
untied
Customs valuation
Other direct-price influences
special fees and requirements
In addition to subsidies which help companies be more competitive, other policies that affect price include aid and loans to help companies win contracts, arbitrary customs valuations, and other special fees and requirements that ultimately result in higher priced goods.
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27. Nontariff Barriers: Quantity Controls
Quotas
limit the quantity of a product that can be imported or exported in a given time frame
Voluntary export restraint (VER)
Embargoes
The most common type of nontariff barriers that directly influence the quantity of imports are quotas which limit the quantity of a product that can be exported or imported. Voluntary export restraints and embargoes that prohibit all trade are types of quotas.
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28. Nontariff Barriers: Quantity Controls
“Buy local” legislation
Standards and labels
Specific permission requirements
import or export license
Administrative delays
Reciprocal requirements
Restrictions on services
Other nontariff barriers affecting quantity include “buy local” legislation, special standards and labels, specific permission requirements, administrative delays, and reciprocal requirements.
Keep in mind that trade restrictions affect services as well as manufactured and agricultural products. Countries deciding whether to restrict trade in services consider essentiality, not-for-profit-preference, standards, and immigration.
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29. Dealing with Governmental Trade Influencers
Learning Objective 5:
To demonstrate the business uncertainties and business opportunities created by governmental trade policies
Learning Objective 5: To demonstrate the business uncertainties and business opportunities created by governmental trade policies.
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30. Dealing with Governmental Trade Influencers
Companies facing import competition can
Move abroad
Seek other market niches
Make domestic output competitive
Try to get protection
Companies facing losses because of import competition have several options.
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31. Tactics For Dealing With Import Competition
Convince decision makers of the merits of particular policies
Involve the industry and stakeholders
Prepare for changes in the competitive environment
The tactics for dealing with import competition vary according to industry and business. It’s not always possible, for example, to simply shift production to another location or find new suppliers.
The development of an international strategy can help determine whether a company will benefit more from protectionist measures or from some other method of countering foreign competition.
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32. Dynamics and Complexity
Trade restriction changes bring about winners and losers among countries, companies, and workers
Gains to consumers from freer trade may come at the expense of companies and workers
The international regulatory situation is becoming more complex
Looking forward, there is likely to be both support for freer trade, and also support for more protectionism.
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