1. theories and traditions of communication
a fascinating world … 1

2. defining communication
establishing a single definition has proved impossible and may not be very fruitful
let’s start with your definitions 2

3. the value of ‘plural
many people think that there must be one right theory of communication so they wonder why we have to deal with so many theories
if we only have one way of understanding how societies are organized, we can look forward to a rocky road to … 3

4. many arenas
debates over what communication is and the dimensions that characterize it will undoubtedly continue
while there is not a right or wrong perspective, choices regarding definitions are not trivial
different questions have different answers; definitions then are tools that should be used flexibly 4

5. the history
intense interest in the study of communication after World War I; advances in technology and literacy made communication a topic of concern
promoted by the popular 20th century philosophies of progress and pragmatism (to improve society through widespread social change); communication became central to such concerns as propaganda and public opinion
communication studies developed in the second half of 20th century because of pragmatic interests in what communication can accomplish and the outcomes it produces 5

6. the geography
the development of the discipline of communication took different forms in different parts of the world
in the United States, they began by studying communication using quantitative methods
in Europe, influenced more by Marxist perspectives, relied on critical/cultural methods
within the contemporary discipline there is considerable interaction both ways 6

7. what is theory?
any organized set of concepts, explanations, and principles of some aspect of human experience
theories are abstractions, they reduce experience to a set of categories and as a result always leave something out
theories are also constructions, are created by people; represent various ways observers see their environment more than they capture reality itself 8

8. tips
questioning a theory’s usefulness is wiser than questioning its truthfulness
a theory offers one way to capture the ‘truth’ of a phenomenon; it is never the only way to view it
theories are intimately tied to action; how we think – our theories – guide how we act, and how we act – our practices – guide how we think 9

9. theory dimensions
a. philosophical assumptions, or basic beliefs that underlie the theory
b. concepts, or building blocks
c. explanations, or dynamic connections made by theory
d. principles, or guidelines for action
most scholars believe that a theory worthy of the name must have at least the first three dimensions 10

10. a. philosophical assumptions
the assumptions to which a theorist subscribes determine how a particular theory will play out
3 major types of assumptions:
about epistemology, or questions of knowledge
about ontology, or questions of existence
about axiology, or questions of value
every theory, explicitly or implicitly, includes assumptions about the nature of knowledge and how it is obtained, what constitutes existences, and what is valuable 12

11. …epistemology
the branch of philosophy that studies knowledge, or how people know what they claim to know
Q: by what process does knowledge arise?
rationalism: in human reasoning that ascertain truth
empiricism: in perception
constructivism: what the person has made of the world
social constructionism: product of symbolic interaction within social groups 13

12. …ontology
the branch of philosophy that deals with the nature of being; in communication ontology centers on the nature of human social interaction
Q: is human experience primary individual or social?
whether the individual or the group carries the most weight in terms of determining human action
Q: to what extent is communication contextual?
whether behavior is governed by universal principles or depends on situational factors 13

13. …axiology the branch of philosophy concerned with the study of values
Q: to what extent does the process of inquiry affect what is being seen? to what degree does the researcher becomes part of the system under examination and thus affect that system?
traditionalist scientific viewpoint is that scientists must observe carefully without interference so that accuracy can be achieved; critics doubt this is possible, believing that no method of observation is completely free of distortion 13

14. b. concepts
things are grouped into conceptual categories according to observed qualities
to determine concepts, the communication theorist observes many variables in human interaction and classifies and labels them according to perceived patterns; the result is to formulate and articulate a set of labeled concepts (taxonomies)
what functions as a set of conceptual terms for one theory may not be applicable to another 12

15. c. explanations
the best theories go beyond taxonomies to provide explanations – statements about how the variables relate to one other – to show how concepts are connected
theorist identifies regularities or patterns in the relationships among variables; explanation answers the question: Why?
types of explanation: causal (one variable seen as an outcome or result of the other), practical (explains actions as goal related) 12

16. d. principles
many traditional theorists say that theories must stop at the level of explanation; other scholars maintain that theories should go beyond depiction and guide practical action
a principle is a guideline that enables you to interpret an event, make judgments about what is happening and then decide how to act in the situation
a principle has three parts: it identifies a situation/event; it includes a set of norms/values; it asserts a connection between a range of actions and possible consequences 12

17. a guide for evaluation
comprehensiveness/inclusiveness (a theory’s explanation must be sufficiently general to extend beyond a single observation)
appropriateness (whether theory’s claims are consistent with or appropriate to their assumptions)
heuristic value (will the theory generate new ideas for research and additional theory?)
validity - three meanings: value/worth (the importance or utility of theory); correspondence/fit (whether concepts and relations specified can be observed); generalizability
parsimony (logical simplicity)
openness (a theory is open to other possibilities; invites dialogue with other perspectives) 12

18. traditions
Robert Craig divides the world of communication into seven traditions:
semiotic
(rhetorical)
socio-psychological
cybernetic
socio-cultural
critical
phenomenological
some of these traditions stand in opposition to one another, while others have a good deal of overleap 12

19. semiotic
the triad of meaning: meaning arises from a relationship among three things – the object (referent), the person (interpreter), and the sign
studying how signs and symbols are used, what they mean, and how they are organized 12

20. … and the media
content is important, but content is a product of the use of signs
focus on the ways producers create signs and the ways audiences understand them
Jean Baudrillard: signs have become separated from the objects they represent; media have propelled this process to the point that nothing is real 12

21. socio-psychological
focus on individual social behavior, psychological variables, individual effects, perception, and cognition
the universal mechanisms that govern action are assumed to be discoverable through careful research (‘the science of communication’) 12

22. … and the media
effects tradition: individuals to be directly and heavily influenced by media messages
cultivation: although effects seem to be strong, there are intervening variables that can limit certain effects
uses and gratifications: audience members are largely responsible for choosing media to meet their own needs 12

23. cybernetic
the tradition of complex systems in which many interacting elements influence one another
communication is understood as a system of parts, or variables, that influence one another, shape and control the character of the overall system, and like any organism, achieve both balance and change 12

24. … and the media
network, a series of feedback loops that connects the parts of a complex system
public opinion: media affect opinion leaders, who in turn disseminate information and influence, through interpersonal communication networks, which leads to the adoption of ideas throughout society, which in turn influences media 12

25. socio-cultural
addresses the ways our understandings, meanings, norms, roles, and rules are worked out interactively in communication
explores the interactional worlds in which people live; reality is not an objective set of arrangements outside us but constructed through a process of interaction in groups, communities, and cultures 12

26. … and the media
medium theory: the mere existence of certain kinds of media affects how we think about and respond to the world
agenda setting: media have the potential for structuring issues for the public
social action: people create a collective identity through the ways in which they negotiate and legitimatize readings of cultural texts 12

27. critical
understand the taken-for-granted systems, power structures, beliefs, and ideologies, that dominate society
uncover oppressive social conditions and power arrangements, in order to promote emancipation
though interested in social action, focus on discourse and the texts that promote particular ideologies, establish/maintain power, and subvert the interests of certain groups/classes 12

28. … and the media
Marxism: media are seen as instruments of the ruling class/capitalists, oppressing working class
Frankfurt school: media a means of constructing culture; domination of the ideology of the elite
political economy: content/information is a commodity to be sold in the market place
hegemonic theory: domination of a false ideology – pervasive and unconscious
cultural studies: look at the ways media content is interpreted; including both dominant and oppositional interpretations 12

29. phenomenological
assumes that people actively interpret their experience and come to understand the world by personal experience with it
it makes actual lived experience the basic data of reality 12

30. … and the media
interpretation involves going back and forth between experiencing an event or situation and assigning meaning to it
media events: the weaving of the aspects of ‘liveness’ and ‘dailyness’ in the case of live broadcasting 12

31. summarizing no tradition contributes to every aspect of communication
the traditions are not mutually exclusive
still, each tradition does have its distinctive character, and in some cases, the traditions even repel one another
as we switch contexts, different traditions become more or less valuable
traditions do not distribute themselves equally across contexts, neither are they limited to a narrow range of concerns 12

32. #
McQuail, D. (2010) McQuail’s Mass Communication Theory, 6th edition. London: Sage.
Littlejohn, S. & Foss, K. (2008) Theories of Human Communication. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth 12

33. coming next week … Empiricism - Chicago School
mass communication research
key texts:
- Mattelart, A. & Mattelart, M. (1998) Theories of Communication: a Short Introduction. London: Sage (chapter 2)
- Rogers, M. E. (1994) A History of Communication Study. NY: Free Press (chapters: 5, 6) 12

34. make a map of the concepts and ideas we discussed today
workshop I
make a map of the concepts and ideas we discussed today 12

35. workshop II
word puzzle 12

36. thank you for your attention1