1. Chapter 2
So What Is the Problem?

2. Learning Objectives
Develop an understanding of the concepts of problem recognition and problem definition
Be able to identify and explain the differences between problems and symptoms
Learn to apply two common symptom organization tools: the Ishikawa diagram and the PIECES framework
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3. Learning Objectives
Understand the concept of bounded rationality and its effects on natural problem solving ability
Review and explain a system classification approach that can assist in understanding the elements and actions of IS
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4. Learning Objectives
Develop a thorough understanding of the process of functional decomposition and its importance to SAD activities
Learn the detailed phases of the SDLC and the typical activities and deliverables associated with each
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5. Problems versus Symptoms
A difference between things as desired and things as perceived (Cause & Weinberg, 1990)
One person’s problem can be another person’s opportunity
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6. Problems versus Symptoms
An outward or physical manifestation of a problem that becomes noticeable as some variance from the norm
A symptom is evidence of a problem, not necessarily the problem itself
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7. Figure 2-1. One Man’s Problem – Another Man’s Opportunity
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8. Problem Recognition and Definition
You cannot solve the problem if you do not know what the real problem is.
Scientists
Observe a phenomenon
Formulate a hypothesis
Conduct an experiment
Systems Analysts
Recognize a variance
Investigate
Propose a solution
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9. Figure 2-2. Analysts and Scientists Use a Similar Approach
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10. Problem Recognition and Definition
Cause and Effect
One common method to define a problem is to explore the cause and effect trail created by its symptoms.
If one can discover a common source for the symptoms, then one can assume that he or she has determined the nature of the problem.
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11. Problem Recognition and Definition
PIECES Framework
Performance
Information
Economic
Control
Efficiency
Service
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12. PIECES Framework The need to improve Performance
Improve throughput: the amount of work performed over some period of time.
Improve response time: the average delay between a transaction and a response to that transaction.
Throughput and response time should be evaluated separately and collectively.
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13. PIECES Framework The need to improve Information and data
Too little or too much information
Lack of needed or relevant information
Lack of relevant information
Information that is not in a useful form
Information that is not accurate or timely
Information that is difficult to produce
Illegal information
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14. PIECES Framework The need to reduce Economic or cost impacts
Costs are unknown
Cost are untraceable to source
Costs are excessive
New markets can be explored to generate profit
Marketing can be improved
Opportunities to increase orders exist
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15. PIECES Framework The need to improve Control and security
Input data is not adequately edited
Crimes are committed against data
Fraud or embezzlement
Ethics are breached based on data or information
Redundantly stored data is inconsistent in different files
Privacy of data is being violated
Processing or decision making errors are occurring
System is deviating from planned performance
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16. PIECES Framework The need to improve Efficiency
People or machines waste time
Machines or processes waste materials and supplies
Effort required for tasks is excessive
Materials required for tasks are excessive
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17. PIECES Framework The need to improve Service
The system produces inaccurate results, inconsistent, or unreliable results.
The system is not easy to learn or to use.
The system is too complex or awkward.
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18. PIECES Framework The need to improve Service
The system is inflexible to situations and exceptions or new requirements.
The system does not interface well to other systems.
The system is not coordinated (“left hand does not know what right hand is doing”).
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19. Problem Statement
Once defined, the root problem must be communicated to a wide variety of parties: the users, the managers, the development team, and technical people.
Problem statement is the common accepted method for such communication
Also referred to as a Statement of Scope and Objectives
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20. Bounded Rationality Proposed by Herbert A. Simon
Cognitive limitations of human beings make it impractical to consider all possible alternatives to a practical problem
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21. Bounded Rationality
Systems analysts are not likely to gather all relevant information available regarding a particular problem.
It suggests the need for guidance and structure in the identification of a problem and the selection of a satisfactory alternative (e.g. SDLC).
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22. Figure 2-4. Theoretical Problem Space and Bounded Rationality
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23. The Concept of Systems
A system is a set of interrelated elements, with an identifiable boundary, that function together to achieve a common goal.
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24. The Concept of Systems The concept of interrelatedness
The elements of a system are interdependent.
Those elements work together to achieve the goals of objectives of the system.
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25. The Concept of Systems The concept of a boundary
A system a definable within the context of all other systems and that its limits can be established by virtue of it having a definable boundary.
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26. The Concept of Systems The common goal
The goal or purpose of a system is its reason for being .
If a system has no reason to exist because it has outlived its usefulness or it no longer can provide the necessary functionality, then the purpose is no longer important and the system is no longer necessary.
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27. System Classification
Open Systems
Closed systems
Figure 2-5
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28. Figure 2-5. Comparison of Characteristics for Open and Closed Systems
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29. Figure 2-6. A Typical Terrarium – A Closed System
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30. Closed Systems Also referred to as stable or mechanistic system
Highly structured and routine in operation
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31. Open System Also referred to as adaptive or organic systems
Less structured and routine in operation
Adapt to changes in internal and external conditions
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32. The Subsystem
The process of breaking a system into its component elements is called functional decomposition.
It allows us to study a single part of a system (subsystem).
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33. Figure 2-7. The Concept of Functional Decomposition
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34. SDLC Preliminary investigation phase Analysis phase
Logical design phase
Physical design phase
Implementation phase
Maintenance phase
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35. Figure 2-8. The Systems Development Life Cycle
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36. Preliminary Investigation Phase
Purposes
Formulate the initial problem statement in a precise and understandable manner
Investigate technical, economic, and operational feasibilities
Deliverable
Preliminary feasibility study (baseline project plan)
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37. Analysis Phase Purposes Deliverables Logical modeling
Assemble formal requirements for the system
Deliverables
DFD and ERD
Formal requirement definition
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38. Logical Design Phase Purposes Deliverables
Redesigning the existing to reflect the proposed solution
Incorporate new features for the system
Deliverables
Final performance specification
Detailed logical models
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39. Physical Design Phase Purposes Deliverables
Convert the logical models into a physical model
Deliverables
Physical specification
A formal feasibility analysis
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40. Implementation Phase Purposes Deliverables End user training
System conversion
Deliverables
System documentation
Training program and schedule
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41. Maintenance Phase Purposes Deliverables
Error correction and system enhancement
Deliverables
Fully functioning system
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42. Figure 2-9. Distribution of Types of Maintenance Agreements
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43. Table 2-2. Activities and Deliverables During SDLC
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44. Systems Development Principles
Get the Users Involved
Systems Analysis is Problem Solving
ISs Are Capital Assets
Good Ideas Can Become Bad Ideas
Document Now
Use the Divide-Conquer Approach
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45. Summary
The fundamental activity of the modern systems analyst is that of problem identification and solution development.
The concept of bounded rationality can help the analyst in identifying a problem and proposing a solution.
Systems development principles should be followed by systems analysts.
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46. Chapter 2
End of Chapter