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Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 1 Chapter 3 Social Cognition This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following.

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Presentation on theme: "Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 1 Chapter 3 Social Cognition This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following."— Presentation transcript:

1 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 1 Chapter 3 Social Cognition This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law: Any public performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network; Preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or in part, of any images; Any rental, lease, or lending of the program

2 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 2 What is Social Cognition? Social cognition – the process of thinking about and making sense of oneself and others

3 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 3 Four Core Processes of Social Cognition Attention Interpretation Judgment Memory Attention Interpretation Judgment Memory

4 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 4 Four Core Processes of Social Cognition Attention – the process of consciously focusing on features of the environment or oneself Attention is limited, and different people may focus on different features of the same situation. Attention – the process of consciously focusing on features of the environment or oneself Attention is limited, and different people may focus on different features of the same situation.

5 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 5 Four Core Processes of Social Cognition Interpretation – the process through which we give meaning to the events we experience Many social situations can be interpreted in more than one way. Interpretation – the process through which we give meaning to the events we experience Many social situations can be interpreted in more than one way.

6 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 6 Is Media Bias in the Eye of the Beholder? In one study, students with pro-Israel or pro-Palestine views watched identical news broadcasts of a conflict between Israelis and Palestinians. esearch

7 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 7 5 5 4 4 3 3 2 2 1 1 0 0 Pro- Israeli Neutral Pro- Palestinian Anti-Israeli Anti-Palestinian Interpretation Perceived bias in media presentations Compared to neutral students, pro- Israeli students thought the presentations were biased against Israelis.

8 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 8 5 5 4 4 3 3 2 2 1 1 0 0 Pro- Israeli Neutral Pro- Palestinian Interpretation But pro-Palestinian students thought the opposite – that the reports were biased against Palestinians. Anti-Israeli Anti-Palestinian Perceived bias in media presentations

9 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 9 Four Core Processes of Social Cognition Judgment – the process of using information to form impressions and make decisions Because we often have limited information, many social judgments are “best guesses.” Judgment – the process of using information to form impressions and make decisions Because we often have limited information, many social judgments are “best guesses.”

10 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 10 Four Core Processes of Social Cognition Memory – storing and retrieving information for future use Memory can influence our decisions by affecting what we pay attention to, and how we interpret it. Memory – storing and retrieving information for future use Memory can influence our decisions by affecting what we pay attention to, and how we interpret it.

11 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 11 The Goals of Social Cognition Conserving Mental Effort Managing Self-Image Seeking Accuracy Conserving Mental Effort Managing Self-Image Seeking Accuracy

12 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 12 The Complex, Information-Rich Social World GOAL: Conserving Mental Effort Simplification Strategies: Expectations Dispositional Inferences Other Cognitive Shortcuts The Limited Human Attentional Capacity

13 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 13 Conserving Mental Effort We often think in ways that tend to preserve our expectations We pay attention to behaviors relevant to our expectations. We interpret ambiguous events/behaviors in ways that support our expectations. We remember people and events consistent with our expectations. We often think in ways that tend to preserve our expectations We pay attention to behaviors relevant to our expectations. We interpret ambiguous events/behaviors in ways that support our expectations. We remember people and events consistent with our expectations.

14 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 14 Conserving Mental Effort Self-fulfilling prophecy – when an initially inaccurate expectation leads to actions that cause the expectation to come true

15 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 15 Avoiding a Negative Self-fulfilling Prophecy Before participating in a mock interview, students were given one of the following instructions: “Go with the flow” “Make sure you make the impression you want to make.” Before participating in a mock interview, students were given one of the following instructions: “Go with the flow” “Make sure you make the impression you want to make.” esearch

16 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 16 Applicants instructed to “make the impression you want to make” were able to overcome the interviewer’s negative expectations. Page 79 Interviewer holds negative expectation for applicant Interviewer holds positive expectation for applicant 6.0 5.0 4.0 Performance Go with the flow Present your desired image

17 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 17 Conserving Mental Effort Self-fulfilling prophecy is most likely to occur when: 1.Those holding the erroneous expectations control the social encounter 2.The target of the expectation defers to this control Self-fulfilling prophecy is most likely to occur when: 1.Those holding the erroneous expectations control the social encounter 2.The target of the expectation defers to this control

18 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 18 Conserving Mental Effort Dispositional inferences – judgments that a person’s behavior was caused by his or her personality

19 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 19 Conserving Mental Effort Correspondence bias (fundamental attribution error) – the tendency for observers to overestimate the causal influence of personality factors on behavior and to underestimate the causal role of situational influences

20 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 20 Conserving Mental Effort Actor-observer difference – the tendency for individuals to judge their own behaviors as caused by situational forces but the behavior of another as caused by his or her personality

21 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 21 Conserving Mental Effort Cognitive heuristics – mental shortcuts used to make judgments

22 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 22 Conserving Mental Effort Representativeness heuristic– a mental shortcut – classifying something as belonging to a certain category to the extent that it is similar to a typical case from that category e.g., judging a student to be a fraternity member because he drinks beer, reads sports magazines, and has many friends Representativeness heuristic– a mental shortcut – classifying something as belonging to a certain category to the extent that it is similar to a typical case from that category e.g., judging a student to be a fraternity member because he drinks beer, reads sports magazines, and has many friends

23 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 23 Rival-schemata ambiguity

24 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 24 My wife and my mother in law

25 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 25 Which blue rectangle is larger?

26 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 26 Muller-Lyer Illusion

27 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 27 Paradoxical Picture

28 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 28 What is it?

29 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 29 Recognize it now?

30 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 30 Availability heuristic

31 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 31 Availability Heuristic Availability heuristic – a mental shortcut – estimating the likelihood of an event by the ease with which instances of that event come to mind

32 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 32 Availability Heuristic Availability heuristic – Examples: 1, 2, 3, ……..? A, B, C,…….? Red, Blue, Green,…..? A man is wearing a heavy jacket, therefore it is cold? A woman is playing with small children, they must be their mother. Availability heuristic – Examples: 1, 2, 3, ……..? A, B, C,…….? Red, Blue, Green,…..? A man is wearing a heavy jacket, therefore it is cold? A woman is playing with small children, they must be their mother.

33 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 33 False Consensus

34 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 34 False Consensus False consensus – the tendency to overestimate the extent to which others agree with us

35 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 35 Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic Anchoring and adjustment heuristic – a mental shortcut – using a rough estimation as a starting point, and then adjusting this estimate to take into account unique characteristics of the current situation

36 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 36 Conserving Mental Effort Factors in the Person and the Situation Arousal and Circadian Rhythms Need For Structure Complex Situations and Time Pressure When the World Doesn’t Fit Our Expectations Factors in the Person and the Situation Arousal and Circadian Rhythms Need For Structure Complex Situations and Time Pressure When the World Doesn’t Fit Our Expectations

37 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 37 Arousal and Circadian Rhythms When we are physiologically aroused (e.g., from watching a horror movie) we are more likely to use cognitive short-cuts. We lose attentional resources during certain phases of our daily cycle (e.g., “morning people” use cognitive short-cuts later in the day; “evening people” use short-cuts in the morning). When we are physiologically aroused (e.g., from watching a horror movie) we are more likely to use cognitive short-cuts. We lose attentional resources during certain phases of our daily cycle (e.g., “morning people” use cognitive short-cuts later in the day; “evening people” use short-cuts in the morning).

38 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 38 Need For Structure People high in the need for structure agree with items like: “I don’t like situations that are uncertain.” These people are more likely to use cognitive short-cuts. People high in the need for structure agree with items like: “I don’t like situations that are uncertain.” These people are more likely to use cognitive short-cuts.

39 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 39 Complex Situations and Time Pressure Complex situations use up more attention, thus leading us to rely on cognitive short-cuts. Because it takes time to fully interpret a social situation, we are more likely to use cognitive short-cuts when we are racing against the clock. Complex situations use up more attention, thus leading us to rely on cognitive short-cuts. Because it takes time to fully interpret a social situation, we are more likely to use cognitive short-cuts when we are racing against the clock.

40 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 40 When the World Doesn’t Fit Our Expectations When something happens that we don’t expect, we are less likely to use cognitive short-cuts, and more likely to think carefully about our situation.

41 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 41 Desire to See Self as Having Good Relationships GOAL: Managing Self-Image Self-Enhancement & Protection Strategies: Social Comparison Self-Serving Attributions Desire to See Self as Effective

42 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 42 Cognitive Strategies for Enhancing and Protecting the Self Downward social comparison – the process of comparing ourselves with those who are less well off Example: Breast cancer patients compared themselves to those who had more serious surgery Downward social comparison – the process of comparing ourselves with those who are less well off Example: Breast cancer patients compared themselves to those who had more serious surgery

43 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 43 Cognitive Strategies for Enhancing and Protecting the Self Upward social comparison – the process of comparing ourselves with those who are better off than ourselves Example: Comparing yourself to an “A” student in order to inspire yourself to study more. Upward social comparison – the process of comparing ourselves with those who are better off than ourselves Example: Comparing yourself to an “A” student in order to inspire yourself to study more.

44 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 44 Self-Serving Attributions If you get a great grade on your next exam, why will that be? Because you’re smart? Because you studied hard? What if you get a lousy grade? Will that be because the exam was too hard? Because I’m a lousy teacher? If you get a great grade on your next exam, why will that be? Because you’re smart? Because you studied hard? What if you get a lousy grade? Will that be because the exam was too hard? Because I’m a lousy teacher?

45 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 45 Self-Serving Attributions Self-serving bias – the tendency to take credit for our successes and to blame external factors for our failures

46 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 46 Self-Serving Bias In a systematic analysis of newspaper articles describing 33 major baseball and football games in the fall of 1977, quotations from both players and coaches differed considerably depending on whether their teams won or lost.

47 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 47 100% 80% 60% 40% 20% 0% Victory Defeat Victory Defeat Internal Explanations External Explanations Lau and Russell (1980) Internal explanations were most likely after victories. External explanations were most likely after defeats. Self-Serving Bias

48 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 48 Managing Self-Image Self-Esteem Threats to Self-Esteem When Self-Esteem is Fragile Self-Esteem Threats to Self-Esteem When Self-Esteem is Fragile

49 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 49 Self Esteem People with high self esteem are more likely to inflate their self-importance and exaggerate their sense of control. People with low self esteem are more cautious, and focus on protecting rather than inflating their self- images. People with high self esteem are more likely to inflate their self-importance and exaggerate their sense of control. People with low self esteem are more cautious, and focus on protecting rather than inflating their self- images.

50 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 50 Threats to Self Esteem People rate standardized tests (like the SAT) as less valid when they perform poorly. Mortality salience (thinking about death) causes people to derogate others who challenge their values. (page 92) People rate standardized tests (like the SAT) as less valid when they perform poorly. Mortality salience (thinking about death) causes people to derogate others who challenge their values. (page 92)

51 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 51 When Self Esteem is Fragile Compared to people with stable self- esteem, those with unstable self- esteem are more likely to generate excuses for poor performances.

52 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 52 How Universal is the Need for Positive Self-Regard? Research contrasting Japanese with North Americans suggests that members of collectivistic cultures are less likely to demonstrate biases like the ones we’ve been exploring.

53 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 53 Desire to Avoid Mistakes GOAL: Seeking Accuracy Accuracy Strategies: Unbiased Information Gathering Considering Alternatives Attributional Logic Desire to Control Outcomes in Life

54 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 54 Unbiased Information Gathering Desire for accuracy leads people to pay special attention to new information (that may go against what they previously suspected).

55 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 55 Considering Alternatives With difficult decisions, it is often helpful to play the Devil’s Advocate – i.e., to consider the opposite side of the argument.

56 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 56 Lord, C. G., Lepper, M. R., & Preston, E. (1984) “Consider the opposite” 120 Stanford students who favored or opposed capital punishment each read two research results – One result showed the death penalty to be effective. The other showed it to be ineffective. 120 Stanford students who favored or opposed capital punishment each read two research results – One result showed the death penalty to be effective. The other showed it to be ineffective.

57 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 57 Mixed info only Control students simply read the mixed information. Lord, C. G., Lepper, M. R., & Preston, E. (1984)

58 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 58 “Be unbiased” A second group was told: “Be as objective and unbiased as possible… weigh all of the evidence in a fair and impartial manner.” A second group was told: “Be as objective and unbiased as possible… weigh all of the evidence in a fair and impartial manner.” Lord, C. G., Lepper, M. R., & Preston, E. (1984)

59 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 59 “Consider the opposite” A third group was told: “Ask yourself at each step whether you would have made the same evaluations had exactly the same study produced results on the other side of the issue.” A third group was told: “Ask yourself at each step whether you would have made the same evaluations had exactly the same study produced results on the other side of the issue.” Lord, C. G., Lepper, M. R., & Preston, E. (1984)

60 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 60 +2 +1 -2 -3 Control group Pro Death Penalty More Pro More Anti Anti Death Penalty Initial opinions: No change Changes in opinion After exposure to mixed info, proponents in the control group became even more pro, opponents even more anti.

61 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 61 +2 +1 -2 -3 Be Unbiased Control group More Pro More Anti No change Changes in opinion Instructions to “Be Unbiased” did not significantly reduce this bias. Pro Death Penalty Anti Death Penalty Initial opinions:

62 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 62 +2 +1 -2 -3 Be Unbiased Consider the opposite More Pro More Anti Control group No change Changes in opinion Students told to “consider the opposite” became unbiased in their information processing. Pro Death Penalty Anti Death Penalty Initial opinions:

63 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 63 Attributional Logic: Seeking the Causes of Behavior Attributional theories – theories designed to explain how people determine the causes of behavior

64 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 64 Attributional Logic Correspondent inference theory – people presume a behavior corresponds to an actor’s internal disposition if The behavior was intended The behavior’s consequences were foreseeable The behavior was freely chosen The behavior occurred despite countervailing forces Correspondent inference theory – people presume a behavior corresponds to an actor’s internal disposition if The behavior was intended The behavior’s consequences were foreseeable The behavior was freely chosen The behavior occurred despite countervailing forces

65 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 65 Attributional Processes Covariation model – people determine the cause of an actor’s behavior by assessing Consensus – Does everybody do it? Distinctiveness – Does it occur only in this situation? Consistency – Does it occur repeatedly? Covariation model – people determine the cause of an actor’s behavior by assessing Consensus – Does everybody do it? Distinctiveness – Does it occur only in this situation? Consistency – Does it occur repeatedly?

66 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 66 Why does Jack want to marry Jill?

67 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 67 Internal Attribution (Jack is Desperate) Distinctiveness is Low (Jack will marry anyone) Consensus is Low (Others aren’t interested in Jill) Consistency is High (Jack’s proposed every day this week)

68 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 68 External Attribution (Jill is desirable) Distinctiveness is High (Jack wants only Jill) Consensus is High (Everyone wants to marry Jill) Consistency is High (Jack’s proposed every day this week)

69 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 69 Interaction Attribution (Jack and Jill have that special magic) Distinctiveness is High (Jack wants only Jill) Consensus is Low (Others aren’t interested in Jill) Consistency is High (Jack’s proposed every day this week)

70 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 70 Attributional Logic: Seeking the Causes of Behavior Discounting principle – as the number of possible causes for an event increases, our confidence that any particular cause is the true one decreases Example: If a student gives an apple to the professor, we are less likely to attribute the gift to altruistic motives if the gift might improve the student’s grade. Discounting principle – as the number of possible causes for an event increases, our confidence that any particular cause is the true one decreases Example: If a student gives an apple to the professor, we are less likely to attribute the gift to altruistic motives if the gift might improve the student’s grade.

71 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 71 Attributional Logic: Seeking the Causes of Behavior Augmenting principle – if an event occurs despite the presence of strong opposing forces, we give more weight to factors that lead towards the event Example: If a girl gives a guy flowers, we are more likely to think she really likes him if she had to walk through a rainstorm to get them. Augmenting principle – if an event occurs despite the presence of strong opposing forces, we give more weight to factors that lead towards the event Example: If a girl gives a guy flowers, we are more likely to think she really likes him if she had to walk through a rainstorm to get them.

72 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 72 Seeking Accuracy Mood Need For Cognition Unexpected Events Social Interdependence Cognitive Resources Mood Need For Cognition Unexpected Events Social Interdependence Cognitive Resources

73 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 73 Sadness People who are mildly depressed are more thorough when thinking about social events. (page 98) When extra thought is beneficial, being a bit sad makes us more accurate. When extra thought interferes with effective processing, being a little sad hurts. People who are mildly depressed are more thorough when thinking about social events. (page 98) When extra thought is beneficial, being a bit sad makes us more accurate. When extra thought interferes with effective processing, being a little sad hurts.

74 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 74 Need for Cognition People who are high in the need for cognition view thinking as fun, enjoy solving puzzles, and enjoy analyzing arguments. These people are less likely to use simplifying heuristics and more likely to carefully assess their social situations. People who are high in the need for cognition view thinking as fun, enjoy solving puzzles, and enjoy analyzing arguments. These people are less likely to use simplifying heuristics and more likely to carefully assess their social situations.

75 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 75 Unexpected Events In one experiment, participants read about how a student did in high school, and then in college. Unexpected outcomes (e.g. a student who did poorly in high school but well in college) led participants to consider many more causal attributions. In one experiment, participants read about how a student did in high school, and then in college. Unexpected outcomes (e.g. a student who did poorly in high school but well in college) led participants to consider many more causal attributions.

76 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 76 Social Interdependence We think carefully about other people when their actions have important implications for us, and when we are accountable to others.

77 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 77 Accuracy Requires Cognitive Resources In a study by Pendry and Macrae (1994) participants were asked to work on a problem with “Hilda,” a 65-year-old.

78 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 78 Accuracy Requires Cognitive Resources Some participants were told they could win money for working interdependently with Hilda. Others were told their rewards would be based solely on their own independent performance. Some participants were told they could win money for working interdependently with Hilda. Others were told their rewards would be based solely on their own independent performance.

79 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 79 Accuracy Requires Cognitive Resources Half the subjects in each condition were asked to hold in mind an 8- digit number (e.g., 97856482). Remembering the number kept the students cognitively busy. Half the subjects in each condition were asked to hold in mind an 8- digit number (e.g., 97856482). Remembering the number kept the students cognitively busy.

80 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 80 5.0 4.0 3.0 2.0 1.0 0.0 Accuracy Motivated (Interdependent) Not Accuracy Motivated (Independent) Highly Stereotypical Not at all Stereotypical Stereotypicality of Impression Cognitively busy (8-digit number) Not cognitively busy Regardless of whether they were cognitively busy or not, participants rewarded only for working independently relied heavily on stereotypes when describing Hilda.

81 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 81 The participants who were interdependent with Hilda, and thus motivated to be accurate, also relied heavily on stereotypes if they were busy remembering the number. 5.0 4.0 3.0 2.0 1.0 0.0 Accuracy Motivated (Interdependent) Not Accuracy Motivated (Independent) Highly Stereotypical Not at all Stereotypical Stereotypicality of Impression Cognitively busy (8-digit number) Not cognitively busy

82 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 82 Only the students who were accuracy motivated and non-busy were able to reduce their reliance on elderly stereotypes. 5.0 4.0 3.0 2.0 1.0 0.0 Accuracy Motivated (Interdependent) Not Accuracy Motivated (Independent) Highly Stereotypical Not at all Stereotypical Stereotypicality of Impression Cognitively busy (8-digit number) Not cognitively busy

83 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 83 Accuracy Requires Cognitive Resources These results suggest that it is only when a desire for accuracy is combined with sufficient cognitive resources that people can move beyond their tendency to simplify.


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