1. Pre-writing: Audience, Topic to Question,Outlining

2. Preliminaries Determine who your readers are. Compose questions to address a gap in knowledge. Draft “claims” that answer knowledge-gap questions. Find supporting reasons and evidence for claims. Address alternative views. Determine the warrants necessary to move from reasons to claim. Ask “why” and “how” questions; identify a “puzzle” or “paradox”: Topic > Puzzle > Question

3. Outlining: A Recursive Process Begin outlining during research and reading. Draft a “topic” outline. Merely a list of subjects to cover–phrases, not sentences Draft a “point”/“reason” outline. Relate together the main points to cover in each section. Save each outline draft in a separate file!

4. Sample “Topic” Outline (p. 175 The Craft of Research, 3rd ed.) Introduction: Laptops in Classrooms UsesLabsClassroom Studies of laptops in classroom “Laptops are good” studies “Laptops are bad” studies Conclusions

5. “Point” (Reason) Outline (p. 176 The Craft of Research, 3rd ed.) I.Introduction: Value of classroom computers uncertain. II.Different uses have different effects. A.All uses increase flexibility. B.Networked computers allow student interaction. C.Classroom instruction does not enhance learning. D.In-class laptops often a distraction. III.Studies show that the effect on writing quality is limited. A.Writers are more wordy. B.Writers need hard copy to revise. IV.Conclusion: Too soon to tell how much laptops improve learning. A.Too few reliable empirical studies. B.Too little history, too many programs in transition C.Some schools adding programs; some dropping programs.

6. “Topic” Outline Broad to Narrow Community participation related to tobacco laws Two laws established B.E. 2535 Nonsmokers Health Protection Act Prevention of smoking in public spaces Tobacco Products Control Act Prevention of sale to minors Community implementation or compliance with the laws Awareness of the laws and the consequences of smoking Compliance with the law and smoking behavior

7. Why is this interesting? What’s the “puzzle,” “paradox,” or “problem? Two laws passed 22 years ago but have been ineffective in (rural) communities Evidence that merchants still sell to minors (previous research) Evidence that people still smoke in public spaces (Previous research)

8. Topic to Question Take the most interesting (narrowed) topic and turn it into a “how” or “why” question. Q1: Why do people still disobey the tobacco laws, even after 20 years? Q2: How might people’s participation in a public campaign enhance their compliance with the laws? Q3: How might a locally based participatory intervention enhance people’s compliance?

9. Again:Outlining is a Recursive Process Revise your outline after your first draft and continuously. Transpose your “free form point/reason outline into a required standard format. Introduction Background Methods & Materials (Data & Methodology) Results Discussion Conclusion

10. Avoid “Writer-Based” Prose (pp. 177-78 The Craft of Research, 3rd ed.) Do not organize your report as a narrative of your thinking. Do not organize your report as a patchwork of your sources

11. Write “Reader-Based” Prose (pp. 179-86 The Craft of Research, 3rd ed.) For ease of understanding and processing information Chronological order: old to new Content: simple to complex Organize according to basic reader needs. Definitions Conditions, Background, History, etc. Warrants Data description

12. Write “Reader-Based” Prose (pp. 179-86 The Craft of Research, 3rd ed.) Organize strategically. Move from uncontested to contested claims. Establish common ground (warrants) first. Warrants – Evidence/Grounds – Claim Acknowledge opposite points of view.