Forensic Psychology (GMN)

Forensic Psychology (GMN)
After a Guilty Verdict G543 Forensic Psychology (GMN) Imprisonment: (1)planned behaviours, (2)depression/suicide, (3)prison situation/roles)

After a guilty verdict This section considers what happens to a person once they have been found guilty and been sentenced. Sentences can be custodial (prison) or non-custodial (probation) Both have advantages and disadvantages You have 5 minutes to list as many as possible of prison (worksheet)

After a guilty verdict Psychologists are interested in the effect on the individual of the punishment or treatment. This is different to the perspectives sociologists might take. They are interested in the effect it has on society and not the individual. Discuss what psychological affect prison would have given Sean Mercer and also people in general.

In the exam (a) Identify the link between imprisonment and suicide. [10] (b) Evaluate the usefulness of research into the psychological effects of imprisonment. January 2010

(a) Identify the link between imprisonment and suicide. [10]
The link between imprisonment and suicide, particularly in young offenders, is well established and the better candidate will clearly identify this link with reference to research such as Dooley, Better answers will be marked by elaboration, quality and/or example, as well as explicit application of evidence. The weaker candidate may make general or bland statements which lack detail or specific references.

(b) Evaluate the usefulness of research into the psychological effects of imprisonment (15)
The question asks the candidate to evaluate usefulness. This can refer to how well the research can be applied, how the research is useful to the individual or the use of the research on a societal level. It may be useful in considering the prison situation and roles, depression and suicide risk of prisoners and planned behaviours once freed from jail.

In the exam (a) Describe research into planned behaviours once freed from jail. [10] (b) Evaluate the use of qualitative and quantitative data when researching imprisonment. [15] January 2013

(a) Describe research into planned behaviours once freed from jail
The bullet-point title asks for ‘planned behaviours once freed from jail’ and this is fulfilled by schemes and regimes being put in place to produce a positive effect on recidivism rates. This can be affected by employment experience for example. The specification refers to Gillis and Nafekh (2005) but other research such as Farrington et al (2002) is equally acceptable.

(b) Evaluate the use of qualitative and quantitative data when researching imprisonment. [15]
Pros and cons, strengths and weaknesses, advantages and limitations of qualitative and quantitative data can all be considered. When looking at planned behaviours in preparation for after imprisonment, depression and suicide during imprisonment and the prison situation are all available from the specification. They provide sources of evidence of the range from content analysis to numbers and data.

In the exam (a) Describe research into the prison situation and roles. [10] (b) Evaluate the methodology used in research into imprisonment. June 2013

(a) Describe research into the prison situation and roles. [10]
Candidates are likely to refer to research by Zimbardo who initially considered participants acting out the roles of prisoners and guards in a prison simulation. The pathological reaction of the prisoners as much as the guards was noteworthy. Candidates may refer to Reicher and Haslam’s study although this focused more on group dynamics than roles, so candidates should explicitly link the ‘role’ aspect. Candidates may choose 2 or more pieces of research to consider prison situation and roles. Candidates who only consider prison situation cannot get higher than band 3.

(b) Evaluate the methodology used in research into imprisonment.
This question is an open evaluation so can refer to strengths as well as limitations, but must be specifically about methodology used in research rather than about imprisonment itself. So research was conducted in a particular place and time, such as Canada or the UK, and in 60s or 70s, so not as cross-sectional as some other research. Large samples of 23,525 Canadian federal offenders, 442 unnatural deaths occurring in prison in the UK or an overview of over 2,000,000 US prisoners benefit particularly the reliability and representativeness of the research. Any other methodological issues may be presented, from the methods themselves such as experimental design through to methodological issues such as ecological validity.

Planned behaviours /Study 1 - Background

Judges blamed for prison boom
The 71% rise in the prison population between 1991 and 2001 was due to a "misplaced emphasis on toughness rather than effectiveness" as courts sentence more people to prison and for longer terms, according to a report by the Prison Reform Trust.

Is prison an effective deterrent?
Edward Garnier (April 06), the Shadow Minister for Home Affairs, thinks that imprisoning criminals is 'hugely expensive and not working'. His view is shared by many, and the fact that 70 per cent of prisoners are convicted of another crime within two years of being released would seem to support that statement. Jamie Whyte, writing in The Times, says this fact tells us nothing about how much prison deters the rest of the population. He thinks it is good value and that we should do more of it. What do you think?

Is prison an effective deterrent?
You have unlimited funding How would you stop the re-offending of: Drug dealers Car thieves ? Any other, you choose

Imprisonment Imprisoning people is thought to be the most effective punishment for a crime and is frequently demanded by the public. But how does it work psychologically? Skinners work on operant conditioning (learning through punishment or reward) can be used to explain how prison works as a deterrent and as a punishment. Explain how?

Imprisonment Prison works (if at all) because it deprives a person of liberty and free will. These are replaced by restrictions (in space, movement and choice over actions and contacts). If this acts as a deterent to criminals then it can be seen as a negative reinforcer and should strengthen avoidance behaviour (staying on the right side of the law).

Imprisonment According to Skinner, if punishment is to be effective, it should weaken that undesirable behaviour, or, ideally, stop it altogether.

Imprisonment However, prisons do not work as the theory's predicts.
Either as a punisher or negative enforcer Explain why this may be, what's happened to society? How would you change society this and why? Recidivism is rife, is life better inside for some youths than on the outside?

Imprisonment: An incentive to behave?
Many people are critical of the parole system (the fact that prisoners are often released early and rarely serve their full sentence); What are the arguments for and against this? However, this is an important incentive, crucial to the smooth operation of the prison system. Applications for parole are allowed after a minimum term (set by the judge) has been served.

Imprisonment: An incentive to behave?
Success will depend on the nature of the offence, the judge’s comments on sentencing and crucially the inmate’s behaviour in prison. This gives the prisoner an incentive to behave and comply with prison rules. Without this incentive many inmates would be unmanageable (Zimbardo/BBC Study)

Azjens Theory of planned behaviour
On worksheet

This theory helps us to understand how we can change the behaviour of people.
Believes that human action is guided by 3 things (next slide)

Based on: 1 – Attitude(about the likely consequence of their behaviour – going straight – their behavioural beliefs) 2 – Subjective norm (beliefs about the normative expectations of others – most people are not criminals) 3 – Behavioural Control(do they feel in control)

The theory of planned behaviour applied to an offender’s likelihood of ‘going straight’ – Azjen (1988) Azjen Theory of Planned Behaviour can be applied to a prisoner leaving jail. A prisoner needs to have a positive intention to stay out of prison. This will be influenced by the prisoners beliefs about the value of their life (Attitude) on the outside and how much confidence they have that they can control what will happen to them (Perceived behavioural control).

The theory of planned behaviour applied to an offender’s likelihood of ‘going straight’ – Azjen (1988) The amount of control a prisoner may feel they have is dependent on many variables. Can you list some (3 minutes) E.g, Aggression, education, addiction Now describe the theory of planned behaviour by applying it to an actual criminal (worksheet willhelp you).

Study 1

Gillis & Nafekh (2005) – The impact of Community-based employment on offender reintegration.

This study was conducted in Canada
Gillis & Nafekh (2005) – The impact of Community-based employment on offender reintegration. This study was conducted in Canada Focussed on inmates who were about to be released having completed their sentence In their prison it was possible to start an employment programme in the final months of their sentence

Why is it important for a prisoner to get a job?
Gillis & Nafekh (2005) – The impact of Community-based employment on offender reintegration The success rates of those with a planned exit from prison are compared using a matched pairs design with prisoners with no planned employment Why is it important for a prisoner to get a job? Money, friends, meaning

Gillis & Nafekh (2005) – The impact of Community-based employment on offender reintegration
Aim: - To investigate the effect on recidivism rates of a community-based employment scheme (more importantly employment status and outcomes)

Sample: - Federal offenders conditionally released between January 1998 and January 2005 23,525 individuals 95% Males and 5% Female

Procedure: - A content analysis (analysing statistics from the government) of data from Canada’s Offender Management System was completed on 23,525 individuals released between January 1998 and January 2005 (95% were male). A matched pairs design was used The two groups that were compared on outcomes were those employed (G1) prior to release on a special programme for offenders and those that were unemployed (G2).

Offenders were matched for: gender risk level release year sentence length family/marital relations substance abuse emotional orientation community functioning Attitudes (Azjen).

Results: Those on the employment programme were more likely to remain on conditional release (i.e. not sent back to prison) and less likely to return to custody with a new offence. The average time for the whole sample to get employment outside was 6 months for men and 10 months for women (why?) At the end of the study period 70% of the employed group (G1) remained out of prison, compared to just 55% of the unemployed group (G2).

Median return time (to jail) was also longer for the employed group (37 months, compared to 11 months). So even if they did end up in prison it still took them longer to get in. But why did some of them end up in prison even with the programme in place?

This study is an improvement to previous studies and has a strong sample and method. Its findings can therefore be generalised and are also more valid Employment-based programmes play an integral role in the last few moths of prison They develop skills that allow them to integrate into society

The programmes focus on job-search technique, individual psychometric assessments and on job placements The study suggests that planning the return to the community addresses some of the points raised in Azjens model and increases the likelihood of success.

64.7% are reconvicted within 2 years Males aged 18-20 it is 75.3%
Gillis & Nafekh (2005) – The impact of Community-based employment on offender reintegration 64.7% are reconvicted within 2 years Males aged it is 75.3% What happens if the release of a prisoner is not planned?

Evaluaiton + Usefulness – the research is highly useful in preventing recidivism of offenders (employment-based programmes play an integral role in the last few months of prison allowing them to reintegrate better into society and giving them control over their future/TOPB) – Ethnocentrism – as the participants were all from Canada it is difficult to generalise the results to other populations. + Large Sample – as the sample is large, which will give an a more reliable and generalisable data set. + No experimenter bias – as the study was a content analysis using computer software, we can argue that there is a low chance of experimenter bias. – There is a lack of depth in this research, we do not know why the employed offenders are less likely to reoffend

Depression/Suicide Study 2 - Background

Depression and suicide risk in prisons
In 2007 there were 92 unnatural deaths in prison A further 100 were resuscitated This is based on information from the ‘Howard League for Penal Reform’ The Howard League for Penal Reform is the oldest penal reform charity in the UK.

The Howard League for Penal Reform - Core Beliefs
The Howard League for Penal Reform works for a safe society where fewer people are victims of crime The Howard League for Penal Reform believes that offenders must make amends for what they have done and change their lives The Howard League for Penal Reform believes that community sentences make a person take responsibility and live a law-abiding life in the community

In the news Suicide and prison closely linked (BBC Health Report)
Two fifths of women prisoners and a fifth of male prisoners in England and Wales have attempted suicide, according to official statistics Most had attempted to take their lives before they were admitted to prison, but the number of suicides in jail is also rising (is this key?) Many came from a background of violence and abuse

In the news Prison campaigners say the figures, released by the Office for National Statistics (ONS), show the strong link between social deprivation, mental ill health and imprisonment and the need for a multi-agency approach to cutting crime and better prison screening of mental illness What is this suggesting?

Of those who had attempted suicide in the past year there were eight main risk factors
The most common were being white and being young. Others included having a poor education and very little support from family and friends Suicide attempts were also strongly linked to mental disorders such as schizophrenia, heavy alcohol abuse and neurosis

Depression and suicide risk in prisons
At any one time 1500 prisoners are on suicide watch

Self-harm in prison What signs could you look for? (as stated on the HM Prison website): Your relative or friend might be unusually quiet, withdrawn or just not interested in things They might stop taking care of themselves They might seem lonely and isolated They may be finding it very difficult to come to terms with their situation They might feel despair and that things are out of their control They may feel many different emotions—anger, despair, hopelessness

Old study:

Dooley study (for those who have already done it):

Dooley, Unnatural deaths in prison
Dooley looked at unnatural deaths from 1972 – 1987. Prisoner A is one of the examples in the text Death by consciously self-inflicted injury (CSI) He had been convicted of manslaughter in 1977 and received a 6-year sentence

Manslaughter is a legal term for the killing of a human being, in a manner considered by law as less culpable (evil) than murder. He had apparently been depressed fir a number of weeks prior to the offence Felt extremely guilty and when considered for parole this feeling of guilt increased

A month before his death he tried to hang himself Seen weekly by a psychiatrist Hanged himself from a coat hook in his cell Was classed as misadventure (accidental death) not suicide Dooley found the most common method of suicide was hanging

Dooley (1990) – Unnatural Deaths in Prisons
Aims: - To investigate all unnatural deaths that occurred in prisons in England & Wales between 1972 and 1987

Procedure: - A content analysis of Prison Department records. A checklist that included social, psychiatric and forensic history was used to analyse the data. The groups recorded as suicide were compared to those not recorded as suicide.

Findings: unnatural deaths were recorded 300 were recorded as suicide The remaining 142 were recorded with a variety of verdicts (mainly misadventure) Including 52 from consciously self-inflicted injury (CSI) More of the suicide group were on remand (not yet sentenced) More of the CSI group were female. Most deaths occurred at night.

Using page 57 (discussion) and your booklets discuss the conclusions of this study Why does overcrowding cause stress? Why are there more suicides among prisoners on remand? How would you attempt to stop this in prison?

New Study:

Palmer and Connelly (2005) – Depression, hopelessness and suicide ideation amongst vulnerable prisoners The link between imprisonment & suicide is a strong Outlined in the study by Dooley et al Found that those who were depressed were more likely to commit suicide than those who weren’t. This same link was found by Palmer & Connelly in their study into suicide risk (more detail than Dooley)

Palmer and Connelly (2005) – Depression, hopelessness and suicide ideation amongst vulnerable prisoners Palmer & Connelly approached adult male prisoners in a Cat. B local prison in England who were new to custody and asked whether they would be willing to participate in a study. 24 who identified themselves as having a history of self-harm. This as the experimental group which was matched on age, ethnicity etc as a control group. Both groups were then were asked to complete several self reports, all relating to depression. These were the Beck’s scale into hopelessness, the Beck’s scale into Depression and the Beck’s scale for suicide intentions. The higher the participants scored the more at risk of suicide/depression they were.

Palmer and Connelly (2005) – Depression, hopelessness and suicide ideation amongst vulnerable prisoners At the end of the study it was found that the experimental group scored higher than the control group. They were more at risk of suicide than the control group which did not have a history of self-harm. Overall it can be seen how young and newcomers to the prison system who have a history of self-harm are more predisposed to commit suicide than others.

Evaluation points

Palmer and Connelly (2005) – Depression, hopelessness and suicide ideation amongst vulnerable prisoners Key evaluative points Assessments conducted on arrival and some individuals who self-harm/ have suicidal tendencies may not cope with this particular level of stress initially. May not be clear if this is state or trait hopelessness/ depressed mood (situation v disposition/individual debate) Reliability questioned and further research required (you also have the issue of self report method – demand characteristics and socially desirable response.

Palmer and Connelly (2005) – Depression, hopelessness and suicide ideation amongst vulnerable prisoners Key evaluative points High ecological validity as they used real prisoners in a real prison (good comparison here to Reicher and Haslam or Zimbardo) Generalisability low as they used a small sample compared to the number of prisoners in jail. Can not generalise to females as all male sample In 2012, 4,590 male suicides were registered, compared with 1,391 female

The prison situation and roles / study 3
Zimbardo Reicher and Haslam Zimbardo and Haney

The prison situation and roles
Haney and Zimbardo; The past and future of prison policy in the USA This study considers what has happened in US prisons 25 years on from the original Stanford Prison Experiment The original goal was to demonstrate the power of institutional environments on people who pass through them (what perspective was identified in this study?)

Different to Milgram’s study as he looked at the effects on individuals complying with an authority figure’s increasingly severe demands (individual explanation) Haney et al was more interested in the situation that people were in

In the original Stanford study (1973) pathological behaviour was attribute to the prison situation and not by the nature of the individual (agree disagree?) This original study was set out to lead to improvements in the system In 1998 Haney and Zimbardo presented a paper in the American Psychologist in the changes that had taken place in the US prison system over 25 years. They presented 6 points as lessons to be learned.

There are two parts to the study, summarising the changes (P1) and suggesting changes (P2)

Part 1 Ronald Reagan’s Republican ‘War on Drugs’ (1980s) led to political pressure to put more criminals behind bars. The concept of rehabilitation was discredited – criminals deserved punishment. Rigid sentencing, with no possibility of parole. Many new prisons built, USA imprisons more people than any other modern nation (2008 prison population 2 million). Racial bias in prison population 48% African-Caribbean men although they only represent 6% of the general population. Many for drug offences. Hispanics also over represented. Introduction of the ‘Supermax’ prison cell.

A ‘Supermax’ prison cell

Part 1 Haney and Zimbardo argue that the USA is perpetuating (continuing) discrimination against black people and encouraging a dispositional (when its situational) explanation of criminal behaviour. The ‘supermax’ cell is another example of a dispositional explanation being used to categorise some prisoners as ‘problem prisoners’. Are they a problem (screening problems)?

Study 1 A Dispositional explanation sees the cause of criminal behaviour as being entirely due to an individual’s personality, rather than considering the environment which would be a situational explanation. Task: - What situations variables or factors might explain the over representation of Blacks in the American penal system?

Part 2 – suggested improvements (6 in total)
Prisons should be used sparingly as they are psychologically damaging, alternatives should be sought. Prisons should take account of individual differences, in particular how a person is likely to react to confinement. Rehabilitation programmes are needed to teach prisoners the skills to cope once they are released. For example, anger management programmes, drug and alcohol detox etc

Part 2 – suggested improvements (6 in total)
Prisoner assessments should include an assessment of situational factors, as well as psychological factors. Behaviour should be seen in the context of events or situation. Reform needs to come from people outside of the prison system who are empowered to act on it. (Those within the system are not impartial). Psychological knowledge should be used to improve the conditions within prisons.

What do you think to these ideas?

Next lesson after H/T Evaluate and compare studies Exam application
Over half term read and briefly evaluate the studies you want to use

Evaluation lesson – 23/2/15

Study 1 - Imprisonment

Azjen’s theory of planned behaviour
1 – Attitude(about the likely consequence of their behaviour – going straight – their behavioural beliefs) 2 – Subjective norm (beliefs about the normative expectations of others – most people are not criminals) 3 – Behavioural Control(do they feel in control)

Gillis and Nafekh - Evaluaiton
+ Usefulness – the research is highly useful in preventing recidivism of offenders (employment-based programmes play an integral role in the last few months of prison allowing them to reintegrate better into society and giving them control over their future/TOPB) – Ethnocentrism – as the participants were all from Canada it is difficult to generalise the results to other populations. + Large Sample – as the sample is large, which will give an a more reliable and generalisable data set. + No experimenter bias – as the study was a content analysis using computer software, we can argue that there is a low chance of experimenter bias. – There is a lack of depth in this research, we do not know why the employed offenders are less likely to reoffend

Study 2 – Depression/ suicide risk in prisons

Palmer and Connelly (2005) – Depression, hopelessness and suicide ideation amongst vulnerable prisoners Key evaluative points Assessments conducted on arrival and some individuals who self-harm/ have suicidal tendencies may not cope with this particular level of stress initially. May not be clear if this is state or trait hopelessness/ depressed mood (situation v disposition/individual debate) Reliability questioned and further research required (you also have the issue of self report method – demand characteristics and socially desirable response.

Palmer and Connelly (2005) – Depression, hopelessness and suicide ideation amongst vulnerable prisoners Key evaluative points High ecological validity as they used real prisoners in a real prison (good comparison here to Reicher and Haslam or Zimbardo) Generalisability low as they used a small sample compared to the number of prisoners in jail. Can not generalise to females as all male sample In 2012, 4,590 male suicides were registered, compared with 1,391 female

Study 3 – The prison situation & roles (option 1)

SPE - Zimbardo Aim – To investigate the effects of being assigned to the role of either a prison guard or prisoner. Procedure - An experiment with the IV being the conditions the participants are randomly allocated to. Either prisoner or guard. The DV is the resulting behaviour

SPE - Zimbardo The study showed that the behaviour of the ‘normal’ students who had been randomly allocated to each condition, was affected by the role they had been assigned, to the extent that they seemed to believe in their allocated positions. The study therefore rejects the dispositional hypothesis. The experiment had to be stopped after just six days instead of the planned 14 days, mainly because of the pathological reactions of the participants. Five prisoners had to be released even earlier because of extreme emotional depression.

SPE – Zimbardo Evaluaiton
Weaknesses – The main criticism was ethical grounds. Zimbardo defends the experiment in a number of ways: The only deception involved was to do with the arrest of the prisoners at the beginning of the experiment. The prisoners were not told partly because final approval from the police wasn’t given until minutes before the participants decided to participate, and partly because the researchers wanted the arrests to come as a surprise. However this was a breach of the ethics of Zimbardo’s own contract that all of the participants had signed. Approval for the study was given from the Office of Naval Research, the Psychology Department and the University Committee of Human Experimentation. This Committee also did not anticipate the prisoners extreme reactions that were to follow Zimbardo also strongly argues that the benefits gained about our understanding of human behaviour and how we can improve society should out balance the distress caused by the study (Agree or Disagree?).

SPE – Zimbardo Evaluation
Weaknesses – Criticised for its unrepresentative sample. Since the experiment was conducted using 24 normal, healthy, male college students who were predominantly middle class and white, we have to be careful generalising the results to other people. Criticised for lacking ecological validity. For practical and ethical reasons the simulated prison could not be totally realistic. Many particularly unpleasant aspects of prison life were absent, such as involuntary homosexuality, racism, beatings and threats to life. Also, the maximum anticipated sentence was just two weeks. It is therefore possible that the study does not serve as a meaningful comparison to real prison environments. Influence of demand characteristics

SPE – Zimbardo Evaluaiton
Strengths– The situation was very tightly controlled e.g. guards and prisoners were randomly allocated and were selected using a stringent criterion. The study still had ecological validity in the way that Zimbardo went to great extremes in making the study as true to life as possible, for example in the way that he had the prisoners arrested from their homes (however unethical). A further strength was in the way that data was collected. A number of qualitative approaches such as observation (sometimes overt and sometimes covert) interviews and questionnaires were used.

What does the study tell us about Individual and situational explanations of behaviour?
The individual explanation for the behaviour of the participants would be that the guards behaved in the way that they did because they were naturally cruel and sadistic people and that the prisoners were naturally weak. However the fact that they were all initially screened and found to be similar in terms of mental and physical health and stability argues against this explanation, as does the fact that they were randomly allocated to the roles of prisoner and guard. Hence a more convincing explanation is that they behaved in the way that they did because of the situation they were in. This would support the initial hypothesis proposed by Zimbardo that the social environment created in prisons is what has the negative and destructive effect on its inhabitants.

How useful is this research and to what extent can it be applied to everyday life?
Following this research, Zimbardo proposed changes to prisons and to guard training but his suggestions were not taken up and, in fact, prisons in the USA have been radically reformed in the last 25 years to make them less humane! However, testimony about the research influenced Congress to change one law so that juveniles accused of federal crimes cannot be housed before trail with adult prisoners because of the likelihood of violence against them. The study also gives a valuable insight into the power of situations and roles on behaviour.

Study 3 – The prison situation & roles (option 2)

BBC Prison Study - Evaluaiton
Ethics – Research approved by two ethics committees. Potential Ps underwent a 3-phase clinical, medical and background screening to ensure that they were neither psychologically vulnerable or would put others at risk. Ps signed a consent form informing them that may experience some physical/psychological discomfort, surveillance and stress. A paramedic, two clinical psychologists and an independent ethics committee monitored the study throughout.

Usefulness– The study shows that it is possible to design and conduct a social psychological research investigation which is ethical and it is also possible to conduct such a study outside of the laboratory. Behaviour of participants could have been determined by the fact that they knew they were being observed by television cameras and could have acted up – socially desirable response. However the researchers make a robust defence of their study by arguing that the screening process was used to exclude anyone who was motivated by the desire for publicity, that behaviour was backed up by physiological and psychological tests and that play-acting was unlikely over such a long period. So it could be useful? Furthermore the researchers suggested that play acting to the cameras could not explain the changes in observed behaviour throughout the study and importantly in response to the planned interventions. They also note that surveillance is becoming a normal part of everyday life.

Generalisability– The researchers were careful to select men who were diverse in age, class and ethnicity. However, as only men were used, it is not clear if the findings generalise to women. Confounding Variables- The Ps knew that they were being recorded for TV which may have affected their behaviour. It is also possible that the guards felt that they had no real power to use. Ecological Validity- Better ecological validity than if the study was conducted in a laboratory. However, being in a constructed environment inside the film studio is not the same as being in a real-life institution.

Comparing studies Generaliability Reliability
Application and usefulness Validity Ethics Situation v individual/disposition With a partner choose an issue/debate and consider it in relation to each study (similarities and differences)

(b) Evaluate the usefulness of research into the psychological effects of imprisonment (15)
The question asks the candidate to evaluate usefulness. This can refer to how well the research can be applied, how the research is useful to the individual or the use of the research on a societal level. It may be useful in considering the prison situation and roles, depression and suicide risk of prisoners and planned behaviours once freed from jail.

Forensic Psychology (GMN)

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