Organization and Administration

Organization and Administration
CHAPTER TWO Organization and Administration Principles and Practices We are born in organizations, educated by organizations, and most of us spend much of our lives working for organizations. We spend much of our leisure time paying, playing, and praying in organizations. Most of us will die in an organization, and when the time comes for burial, the largest organization of all—the state—must grant official permission. —AMITAI ETZIONI

LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the conclusion of this chapter, the student will: be able to define organizations and be familiar with their elements know the evolution of organizational theory, including scientific, human relations, systems, and bureaucratic management understand the major components of organizational structure, such as span of control and unity of command comprehend the primary leadership theories and skills, including the characteristics and skills of America's best leaders

LEARNING OBJECTIVES (cont.)
At the conclusion of this chapter, the student will: comprehend the primary leadership theories and skills, including the characteristics and skills of America's best leaders be familiar with the components of communication, including its process, barriers, role, cultural cues, and the uniqueness of communication within police organizations know the kind of world and related challenges and organizational implications of persons of three younger generations who are now in, or will soon be entering, the workplace

LEARNING OBJECTIVES (cont.)
At the conclusion of this chapter, the student will: know the kind of world and related challenges and organizational implications of persons of three younger generations who are now in, or will soon be entering, the workplace understand the impact of the socialization and lifestyle of the three younger generations now entering the workplace describe the rights and interests --& legal aspects--concerning both employees and employers regarding employees' personal appearance at the workplace

Defining Organizations
The word organization has a number of meanings and interpretations that have evolved over the years. We think of organizations as entities of two or more people who cooperate to achieve an objective(s). The first were likely primitive hunting parties. Organization and a high degree of coordination were required to bring down huge animals. revealed in fossils from as early as 40,000 years ago

The word organization may be defined as “a consciously coordinated social entity, with a relative identifiable boundary, that functions on a relatively continuous basis to achieve a common goal or set of goals.” Social entity refers to the fact that Organizations are composed of people who interact with one another & people in other organizations. Relatively identifiable boundary alludes to the organization’s goals and the public served.

Four different types of formal organizations have been identified by asking “Who benefits?” mutual benefit associations, (police labor unions) business concerns, (General Motors) service organizations, such as community mental health centers commonweal organizations, such as criminal justice agencies, where beneficiaries are the public at large It is important to note that no two organizations are exactly alike. nor is there one best way to run an organization

Evolution of Organizational Theory
Organizational theory studies organizational designs & structures, relationship of organizations with their external environment, and behavior of administrators and managers within organizations. The history of management can be divided into three approaches and time periods: scientific management (1900–1940) human relations management (1930–1970) systems management (1965–present) Another important element may be added: bureaucratic management.

Evolution of Organizational Theory Scientific Management
Frederick W. Taylor is known today as the father of scientific management. He became interested in methods for getting greater productivity from workers. Taylor recommended giving workers hourly breaks, going to a piecework system and other adjustments. Productivity soared, the number of employees needed dropped, worker earnings increased, and production costs were reduced.

Taylor was highly criticized by unions for his management-oriented views. but proved administrators must know their employees His views, published in The Principles of Scientific Management in 1911, caught on. soon, emphasis was placed entirely on the formal administrative structure Terms such as authority, chain of command, span of control, and division of labor were coined.

In 1935, Luther Gulick formulated POSDCORB, an acronym for planning, organizing, staffing, directing, coordinating, reporting, and budgeting. Application of scientific management to criminal justice agencies was heavily criticized. It viewed employees as passive instruments whose feelings were completely disregarded. in addition, employees were considered to be motivated by money alone

Figure 2.1 Gulick’s POSDCORB. Source: Luther Gulick and Lyndall Urwick, Papers on the Science of Administration (New York: Institute of Public Administration, 1937).

Evolution of Organizational Theory Human Relations Management
Beginning in 1930, people began to see negative effects of scientific management on the worker. Movement toward human relations management began with studies by the Harvard Business School at the Hawthorne plant of Western Electric Co. In the 1940s & 50s, police departments recognized effects of the informal structure on the organization. democratic/participatory management appeared Many police managers saw this trend as unrealistic. employees began to give less & expect more in return

Evolution of Organizational Theory Systems Management
In the 60s, human relations & scientific management combined in the systems management approach. This approach recognized it was still necessary to have hierarchical arrangement for coordination. authority & responsibility were essential overall organization was required Systems management combined the work of Abraham Maslow, Douglas McGregor, and Robert Blake & Jane Mouton.

Evolution of Organizational Theory Systems Management
The approach holds that to be effective, the manager must be interdependent with other individuals & groups and have the ability to recognize and deal with conflict and change. Managers require knowledge of people, money, time, and equipment team cooperation is required to achieve these goals Several theories of leadership also have evolved over the past several decades. trait theory, leadership styles, and situational approaches

Evolution of Organizational Theory Bureaucratic Management
Criminal justice agencies fit the description of an organization. They are managed by being organized into a number of specialized units. Administrators, managers, and supervisors exist to ensure that these units work toward a common goal. They agencies consist of people who interact within the organization and with external organizations, and they exist to serve the public. Criminal justice organizations are bureaucracies, as are nearly all large organizations in modern society.

Idea of pure bureaucracy was developed by Max Weber, German sociologist & “father of sociology”. Weber argued that if a bureaucratic structure is to function efficiently, it must have these elements: Rulification and routinization rules save effort by eliminating need for deriving a new solution for every problem facilitate standard, equal treatment of similar situations Division of labor performance of functions by parts of an organization along with authority to carry out these functions

Hierarchy of authority each lower office is under control & supervision of a higher one Expertise specialized training is necessary Written rules administrative acts, decisions, & rules are formulated and recorded in writing Most police & prison organizations are based on traditional, pyramidal, quasi-military organizational structure containing elements of a bureaucracy.

Bureaucracies are often criticized on two grounds. they are said to be inflexible, inefficient, and unresponsive to changing needs and times also said to stifle the individual freedom, spontaneity, and self-realization of their employees James Q. Wilson referred to this discontent as the “bureaucracy problem,” where the key issue is “getting the frontline worker to do ‘the right thing.’” In short, bureaucracies themselves can create problems.

Figure 2.2 The organization as an input–output model.
Evolution of Organizational Theory Organizational Inputs/Outputs Another way to view organizations is as systems that take inputs, process them, and produce outputs. A police agency processes reports of crimes and attempts to satisfy the customer (crime victim). Figure 2.2 The organization as an input–output model.

Organizational Structure
All organizations have an organizational structure or table of organization. written or unwritten, very basic or highly complex The size of the organization depends on demands placed on it and resources available to it. Growth precipitates need for more personnel, greater division of labor, specialization, written rules, and other such elements.

In building the organizational structure, the following principles should be kept in mind: Principle of the objective every part of every organization must be an expression of the purpose of the undertaking Principle of specialization activities of every member should be confined to performance of a single function Principle of authority there should be a clear line of authority to every person in the group

Principle of responsibility responsibility of the superior for the acts of his/her subordinates is absolute Principle of definition content of each position, duties involved, authority and responsibility contemplated, and relationships with other positions should be clearly defined Principle of correspondence responsibility & authority should correspond Span of control no person should supervise more than six direct subordinates

A major principle of hierarchy of authority is unity of command, placing one superior officer in command/control of every situation and employee. The unity-of-command principle ensures that multiple and/or conflicting orders are not issued. Every person in the organization should report to one and only one superior officer. When the unity-of-command principle is followed, everyone involved is aware of the actions initiated by superiors and subordinates.

Figure 2.3 Chain of command.
Organizational Structure Figure 2.3 Chain of command. A simple structure indicating the direct line of authority in a chain of command

Figure 2. 4 Organization pyramid. Source: Adapted R
Figure 2.4 Organization pyramid. Source: Adapted R. Human Behavior in Organizations, p © Reproduced by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey. The classic pyramidal design, shown here, has the following characteristics:

Organizational Structure Pyramidal Design
Nearly all contacts take the form of orders going down and reports of results going up the pyramid. Each subordinate must receive instructions and orders from only one boss. Important decisions are made at the pyramid top. Superiors have a specific span of control, supervising only a limited number of people. Personnel at all levels except at the top and bottom have contact only with their boss above them and their subordinates below them.

Communication in the Organization Import and Consequences
Communication is very important in our society. People consider language an index of culture, breeding, personality, intelligence, integrity. Ignorance or improper use of language can easily interfere with your success and advancement. Communication becomes exceedingly important and sensitive in criminal justice organizations, as practitioners often see people at their worst, when they are in embarrassing, compromising situations. To communicate what is known could be devastating to parties concerned.

Communication in the Organization Definition and Characteristics
Today we communicate via , fax, video, cell phones, satellite dishes, and many other forms. also written letters and memos, body language, TV & radio, newspapers and meetings Studies have shown communication is the primary problem in administration. lack of communication is employees’ primary complaint about their immediate supervisors Estimates vary, but all studies emphasize the importance of communications in everyday law enforcement operations.

Communication in the Organization Communication Process Elements
Encoding to convey an experience or idea, we translate, or encode, that experience into symbols Transmission translation of the encoded symbols into some behavior that another person can observe Medium communication must be conveyed through some channel or medium

Communication in the Organization Communication Process Elements
Reception verbal & nonverbal symbols reach the senses of the receiver and conveyed to the brain for interpretation Decoding the individual who receives the stimuli develops some meaning for the verbal and nonverbal symbols and decodes the stimuli Feedback after decoding transmitted symbols, the receiver usually provides response or feedback to the sender

Communication in the Organization Definition and Characteristics
Systems of communication are usually created with formal areas of responsibility & delegation of duties. Most criminal justice administrators prefer a formal system. Several human factors affect communication. employees typically communicate with those persons who can help them to achieve their aims they avoid communicating with those who do not Communication within a criminal justice organization may be downward, upward, or horizontal.

Communication in the Organization Five Types of Downward Communication
Job instruction relating to the performance of a certain task Job rationale relating a certain task to organizational tasks Procedures and practice organizational policies, procedures, rules & regulations Feedback appraising how an individual performs assigned tasks Indoctrination designed to motivate the employee

Communication in the Organization Upward Communication
Communication is often difficult and infrequent when superiors are isolated and seldom seen or spoken to. In large organizations, administrators may be located in headquarters far from operations personnel. complexity of the organization may also cause prolonged delays of communication Communication delays are inherent in bureaucracy. the more levels the communication passes through, the more it is filtered and diluted in its accuracy Many problems could be minimized or eliminated if superiors took time to listen to employees.

Communication in the Organization Horizontal Communication
Thrives when formal communication channels are not open. A disadvantage is that it is easier and more natural, and often replaces vertical channels. It is essential if subsystems within a criminal justice organization are to function in an effective and coordinated manner. Horizontal communication may also provide emotional and social bonds that build morale and feelings of teamwork among employees.

Communicating in Police Organizations Consequence, Jargon and the Grapevine
Officers must possess the ability to communicate internally and externally regarding policies and procedures that affect daily operations. Like people in other occupations, police have their own jargon, dialect, and slang used on a daily basis. they help officers to communicate among themselves The police also communicate with one another by listening and talking on the squad car radio. generally with codes in use since the 1920s The police also use of a phonetic alphabet, designed to avoid confusion between letters that sound alike.

Communicating in Police Organizations Consequence, Jargon and the Grapevine
Added to other barriers to effective communication, the grapevine can hinder communications. It is fast, operates mostly at the workplace & supplements regular, formal communication. On the positive side, the grapevine can be a tool for management to gauge employees’ attitudes, spread useful information, and help employees vent frustrations. it can also carry untruths and be malicious Without a doubt, the grapevine is a force for administrators to reckon with on a daily basis.

Oral and Written Communications
Our society tends to place considerable confidence in the written word within complex organizations. Often, in spite of the writer’s best efforts, information is not conveyed clearly. Criminal justice organizations seem to rely increasingly on written communication, with tendency toward written rules, policies & procedures has been caused by three developments: the requirement for administrative due process civil liability the accreditation movement

Oral and Written Communications
In recent years has proliferated as a communication medium in criminal justice organizations. easy-to-use, almost instantaneous, in upward, downward, or horizontal directions messages can lack security and can be ambiguous—not only with respect to content meaning but also with regard to what they represent. Are such messages, in fact, mail, to be given the full weight of an office letter or memo, or should they be treated more as offhand comments?

Other Barriers to Effective Communication
Several other potential barriers to effective communication exist. Some people, for example, are not good listeners. Other things obstruct communication, including time constraints, inadequate or excessive information, prejudices, strained sender–receiver relationships. Subordinates do not always have the same “big picture” viewpoint that superiors possess and do not always communicate well with someone in a higher position who is perhaps more fluent and persuasive than they are.

Other Barriers to Effective Communication Cultural Cues
At least 90 percent of communication is nonverbal in nature, involving posture, expressions, gestures, tone of voice. People learn to interpret these nonverbal messages by growing up in a particular culture, but not every culture interprets nonverbal cues in the same way. Criminal justice practitioners must possess cultural empathy and understand the cultural cues of citizens from other nations.

Primary Leadership Theories What is Leadership?
Probably since the dawn of time administrators have received advice on how to do their jobs from those around them. To understand leadership, the term must first be defined, an important & fairly complex undertaking. Perhaps the simplest definition is to say leading is “getting things done through people.”

Primary Leadership Theories Other Definitions of Leadership
“Influencing activities of an individual or group in efforts toward goal achievement in a given situation” “Working with and through individuals & groups to accomplish organizational goals” “The activity of influencing people to strive willingly for group objectives” “The exercise of influence” In criminal justice organizations, the role might be defined as “influencing organizational members to use their energies willingly and appropriately to facilitate the achievement of the [agency’s] goals.”

Primary Leadership Theories Trait Theory
Popular until the 1950s, based on the contention that good leaders possessed certain character traits that poor leaders did not. Has lost much support since the 1950s, partly because of the basic assumption of the theory that leadership cannot be taught. Quantifiable means to test trait theory were limited, and inability to measure these factors was the real flaw in and reason for the decline of trait theory.

Primary Leadership Theories Trait Theory
Figure 2.5 Traits and skills commonly associated with leadership effectiveness. Source: Adapted from Gary A. Yukl, Leadership in Organizations, pp. 70, 121–125, Table 3-6. © Reproduced by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.

Primary Leadership Theories Style Theory
A study investigated how leaders motivated individuals/groups to achieve organizational goals. Three principles of leadership behavior emerged: leaders must give task direction to their followers Closeness of supervision directly affects employee production leaders must be employee oriented The major focus of style theory is the adoption of a single managerial style by a manager based on his or her position in regard to initiating structure and consideration.

Primary Leadership Theories Style Theory
Autocratic leaders are leader centered and have a high initiating structure. A democratic leader tends to focus on working within the group and strives to attain cooperation from group members by eliciting their ideas and support. Laissez-faire is a hands-off approach in which the leader is actually a nonleader. this may not be a leadership style at all it may be an abdication of administrative duties

Figure 2. 6 Style theory. Source: Richard N
Figure 2.6 Style theory. Source: Richard N. Holden, Modern Police Management (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1986), p. 40. Three pure leadership styles were thought to be the basis for all managers: autocratic, democratic, laissez-faire.

Situational Leadership®
Recognizes that the workplace is a complex setting subject to rapid changes. states the best way to lead depends on the situation The model emphasizes the leader’s behavior in relationship to followers’ behavior and requires that the leader evaluate follower readiness in two ways. willingness (motivation) and ability (competence) Situational Leadership® takes into account worker readiness; readiness is defined as the capacity to set high but attainable goals, the willingness to take responsibility, and the education and/or experience of the individual or the group. c

R1 followers are neither willing nor able to take responsibility for task accomplishment. R2 followers are willing but are not able to take responsibility for task accomplishment. R3 followers are not willing but are able to take responsibility for task accomplishment. R4 followers are willing and able to take responsibility for task accomplishment. Figure 2.7a Situational Leadership®. Source: Copyright Reprinted with permission of the Center for Leadership Studies, Inc., Escondido. CA, All rights reserved.

S1-Telling. High task/low relationship one-way communication leader defines roles of followers S2-Selling. High task/high relationship Two-way communication Socioemotional support to get followers to accept decisions S3-Participating. High relationship/low task style indicates that both the leader and followers have the ability and knowledge to complete the task. S4-Delegating. Low relationship/low task style followers “run their own show” Figure 2.7b Situational Leadership®. Source: Copyright Reprinted with permission of the Center for Leadership Studies, Inc., Escondido. CA, All rights reserved.

The style-of-leader portion of Fig 2.7 means that, as the readiness level of followers develops, the appropriate style of leadership moves correspondingly. a police supervisor who has a subordinate whose maturity is in the R3 range (able but unwilling) would be most effective when employing an S3 (participating) style of leadership Hersey and Blanchard asserted that leaders could reduce their close supervision and direction of individuals and increase delegation as followers’ readiness to complete tasks increased. c

The Managerial Grid In 1964, Blake and Mouton developed their managerial grid from the studies done by Edwin Fleishman and others at Ohio State University. The Ohio team used two variables, focus on task (initiating structure) and focus on relationships (consideration), to develop a management quadrant describing leadership behavior. The managerial grid (Figure 2.8) includes five leadership styles based on concern for output (production) and concern for people.

The five leadership styles can be summarized as:
Authority–compliance management (9,1) Country club management (1,9) Middle-of-the-road management (5,5) Impoverished management (1,1) Team management (9,9) Figure 2.8 Managerial grid. Source: Reprinted by permission of Harvard Business Review. Exhibit from “Breakthrough in Organizational Development” by Robert R. Blake, Jane S. Mouton, Louis B. Barnes, and Larry E. Greiner, Harvard Business Review, November–December Copyright © 1964 by the Harvard Business School Publishing Corporation; all rights reserved.

Characteristics and Skills of America’s Best Leaders
Given today’s skepticism and distrust of leaders, it may seem there is a dearth of leadership. A survey found that twenty-first-century authentic leaders know who they are; they do not feel a need to impress or please others. they inspire those around them & bring people together around shared purposes & common values Usually authentic leaders demonstrate five traits: pursuing their purpose with passion; practicing solid values; leading with hearts as well as heads; establishing connected relationships; self-discipline

Characteristics and Skills of America’s Best Leaders
Robert Katz identified three skills leaders should possess, each resulting in the achievement of objectives and goals, the primary management task. Technical skill - those a manager needs to ensure specific tasks are performed correctly. Human skill - involve working with people, including being thoroughly familiar with what motivates employees and how to utilize group processes. Conceptual skill - “coordinating & integrating activities and interests of the organization toward a common objective.

Motivating Employees Some have sought to do so through justice (Plato), others through psychoanalysis (Freud), some through conditioning (Pavlov), some through incentives (Taylor), and still others through fear (any number of dictators and despots). From the Industrial Revolution to the present, managers have been trying to get a full day’s work from their subordinates. Many theories have attempted to explain motivation.

Motivating Employees The Hawthorne Studies
An important theory that criminal justice leaders must comprehend is that of the Hawthorne effect. which essentially means that employees’ behavior may be altered if they know they are being studied The Hawthorne studies revealed people work for many reasons, not just for money and subsistence. for the first time, clear evidence was gathered to support workers’ social and esteem needs At least three major new areas of inquiry evolved: what motivates workers leadership organizations as behavioral systems.

Motivating Employees Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Abraham H. Maslow (1908–1970), founder of the humanistic school of psychology, conducted research on human behavior at the Air University, Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama, during the 1940s. The behavior patterns analyzed were those of motivated, happy, and production-oriented people—achievers, not underachievers. He studied biographies of historical and public figures and also observed and his contemporaries—none of whom showed psychological problems or signs of neurotic behavior.

Maslow’s observations coalesced into a hierarchy of needs
Figure 2.9 Maslow’s hierarchy of human needs. Source: A. H. Maslow, Motivation and Personality, 2nd ed. (New York: Harper & Row, 1970). Maslow’s observations coalesced into a hierarchy of needs He suggested needs should be filled in sequential order to prevent frustration Maslow’s research indicated that once a person reaches a high state of motivation, he/she will remain highly motivated, will have a positive attitude toward the organization, and will adopt a “pitch in and help” philosophy

Motivating Employees Expectancy and Contingency Theories
The 1960s, expectancy theory, states employees will do what managers or organizations want if: the task appears to be possible the reward (outcome) offered is seen as desirable employees believe performing the task will bring the desired outcome there is a good chance that better performance will bring greater rewards The theory will work for an organization that specifies behaviors it expects the rewards or outcomes for those who exhibit such behaviors.

Motivating Employees Expectancy and Contingency Theories
In the 70s, Morse & Lorsch described their contingency theory, with these basic components: among people’s needs is a central need to achieve a sense of competence ways in which people fulfill this need will vary competence motivation is most likely to be achieved when there is a fit between task and organization, an a sense of competence continues to motivate people even after competence is achieved This tells managers to tailor jobs to people or give people skills, knowledge, and attitudes they need.

Gamers, Tattoos, and Attitudes Generations X, Y, and Next Employees
Many articles and books are being written about understanding and motivating those persons of four younger generations who are now entering or will soon enter the workplace. Generation X - persons born between 1965 & 1975 Generation Y - between 1976 & 1980. The Next generation - between 1990 &1995 Millennials - also termed Generation 2.0–– extremely tech-savvy and digitally literate 20-somethings preparing to enter the workplace

These generations grew up amid rising crime rates, violence & terrorism; structured lives; multicultural society & resurgence of the “American hero”. police officers & firefighters commonly in the news Almost 90 percent have use the Internet; more than half send text messages daily and use social networking sites, have a tattoo or body piercing, or have dyed their hair a nontraditional color. They have an emerging sense of patriotism and political interest, feel special, connected, confident, hopeful, goal/achievement oriented, and inclusive.

Their television viewing habits are unique as well. Dragnet vs CSI; Starsky and Hutch vs 24; & Three’s Company vs The Simpsons An entire generation grew up in a game world–– where reward is everywhere. gaming offers everyone the opportunity to be in charge, succeed, and be a star With respect to tattooing, while a member of these generations might not look twice at exposed ink or metal, administrators of the baby boomer generation might find it offensive.

Implications for the Criminal Justice Workplace
How might criminal justice integrate such individuals into a work environment with a strong hierarchy and no reset button? The American workplace will increasingly become a playing field of competing viewpoints and values. The implications for criminal justice administrators are several. they should think of ways in which they can take advantage of the motivations of these younger generations as they enter the field

Implications for the Criminal Justice Workplace
It is also recommended these leaders attempt to understand the younger employee’s preferred work environment. Such leaders should avoid judging those whose work ethic is slightly different from theirs. Regarding tattooing, administrators are given some control over their employees’ appearance––and may find guidance in that arena––in a 1976 U.S. Supreme Court decision, Kelley v. Johnson. the Court said appearance regulations are generally valid unless so irrational that they are arbitrary

SUMMARY Most young people entering the labor force would probably like to retain their individuality, feel free to express themselves, have a sense of being an important part of the team, and realize both extrinsic and intrinsic rewards from their work. In reality, a majority of people will work within and organization that will not meet all of their needs. Many organizations have a highly refined bureaucracy. Whether an organization will meet an employee’s needs depends largely on its administrative philosophy.

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